THE  ESSENTIALS 

OF  RELIGIOUS 

EDUCATION 


CHARLES  WILLIAM  HEATHCOIE 


BV  1471  .H4 

Heathcote,  C.  W.  1882- 
The  essentials  of  religiou 
education 


H35"25" 


THE  'Essentials    of 

RELIGIOUS     EDUCATION 


BY  •      ^'  ^  ^' 


v^'^ 


CHARLES  WILLIAM  HEATHCOTfe 

A.  M.  {Univ.  of  Penn.)  s.  x.  d.  (Temple  Univ.) 

Instructor  or  Religious  Education 
Theological  Department,  Temple  University 


INTRODUCTION  BY 
RUSSELL  H.  CONWELL,  D.  D.,  LL.  D. 


BOSTON 

SHERMAN,  FRENCH  &  COMPANY 

1916 


COPYBIGHT,    1916 

Sherman,  French  &  Company 


TO 

MY  WIFE 

BY  WHOSE  HELP  THIS  BOOK 

HAS    BEEN    MADE    POSSIBLE 

IT  IS  MOST  AFFECTIONATELY 

DEDICATED 


INTRODUCTION 

The  heart  of  humanity  comes  back  to  the 
Bible  as  the  tide  to  the  shore.  The  critics  who 
would  kill  the  Bible  to  find  the  spirit  defeat 
themselves;  the  Truth  will  survive  and  prevail. 
Dr.  Heathcote  in  this  book  recognizes  clearly 
the  spirit  of  eternal  Truth  which  permeates  and 
sustains  the  life  of  the  dear  old  Book. 

But  the  author  is  not  only  a  scholar  and  a 
skillful  instructor;  he  is  a  direct  benefactor. 
All  books  having  the  purpose  combined  with 
clear  thinking  bring  the  Bible  nearer  the  people 
and  awaken  their  desire  to  know  its  contents. 

It  has  the  Master's  method  of  teaching  teach- 
ers and  sending  out  missionaries.  Every  such 
effort  has  the  approval  and  encouragement  of 
all  lovers  of  humanity,  and  when  it  has  the  char- 
acter and  scholarship  shown  in  this  book,  it 
makes  all  its  Christian  readers  glad. 

Russell  H.  Conwell. 


PREFACE 

This  text-book  is  the  outgrowth  of  the  lectures 
given  to  mj  students  at  the  Temple  University  dur- 
ing the  last  several  years.  A  large  number  of  the 
students,  and  others  outside  of  the  University,  inter- 
ested in  religious  education,  have  frequently  re- 
quested me  to  prepare  a  book  on  the  subject.  To 
meet  this  request  the  book  has  been  written. 

The  volume  has  been  prepared  for  students  in  uni- 
versities, colleges,  and  theological  seminaries,  who 
are  interested  in  the  religious  pedagogical  courses, 
and  is  primarily  a  text-book,  since  it  was  desired  to 
place  in  the  hands  of  students  a  book  dealing  particu- 
larly with  the  subject  of  religious  education.  It  is 
believed  that  the  book  will  meet  this  need  and  require- 
ment. 

I  have  not  been  unmindful  of  the  large  army  of 
faithful  and  active  Bible  School  teachers  who  are 
anxious  by  careful  reading  and  study  to  better  pre- 
pare themselves  for  their  noble  work,  and  I  hope  this 
work  will  prove  helpful  to  them  also. 

To  the  man}^  friends.  Christian  teachers,  and  in- 
structors who  have  helped  by  their  advice  I  am  very 
grateful. 

Charles  William  Heathcote. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTEB  PAGE 

*4     The   Scope   of   Religious   Education      .        1 
II     History    of    Religious    Education:    the 

Early   Period 17 

III  History    of    Religious    Education:    the 

Middle    Period 50 

IV  History    of    Religious    Education:    the 

Later   Period 71 

V     History    of    Religious    Education:    the 

Later   Period    (Concluded)         .      .      .104 
^Vl     Principles   of   Psychology      .      .      .      .116 

*^  VII     Child    Development 133 

VIII     Periods  of  Development:  Early  Child- 
hood       146 

IX     Periods  of  Development:  Later  Child- 
hood—  Six  to  Twelve  Years  .      .      .158 
X     Periods   of   Development:   the   Adoles- 
cent       167 

XI     The    Teacher's    Requisites      .      .      .      .187 

XII     Preparation   and   Teaching    ....    196 

XIII  Questions  and  Illustrations       .      .      .211 

XIV  Bible    Study 224 

XV     The  Bible  School  Organized      .      .      .    234 

XVI     Order ,      ....  253 

XVII     Graded    Lessons 264 

XVIII     Summary  of  the  Graded  Courses      .      .  270 

Bibliography 279 

Index 287 


CHAPTER  I 

THE   SCOPE   OF   RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

The  Definition  —  Religion  and  Education  —  The 
Factors  —  The  School  —  The  Home  —  The  Church. 

THE  DEFINITION 

Dr.  Coe  says  the  factors  involved  in  the  idea  of 
education  are  these :  "  An  immature  being,  a  goal 
or  destiny  for  life,  and  the  older  human  beings 
who  can  help  the  younger  to  realize  this  goal  or 
destiny."  ^  Dr.  Coe  also  shows  that  at  times,  par- 
ticularly in  the  past,  educators  over-emphasized 
the  adult  viewpoint,  the  goal  and  the  child.  In 
other  words,  so  much  stress  was  laid  upon  adult 
experiences  that  these  results  became  the  standards 
of  education.  Adult  views  are  necessary  for  educa- 
tional development,  but  to  lay  undue  emphasis  upon 
them  to  the  exclusion  of  other  ideas  will  prevent  genu- 
ine progressive  growth.  Naturally  the  goal  sought 
after  under  such  circumstances  was  to  over-em- 
phasize the  destiny  of  man.  This  was  the  view  of 
medieval  education.  Religious  education  then,  under 
the  control  of  the  church,  was  fostered  along  narrow 
lines  of  development.  ^ledieval  religion  as  well  as 
education  were  not  "  broad  enough  to  include  every- 
thing that  is  worthy  of  being  a  part  of  our  temporal 
life."  Religion  and  education  alike  had  as  their  goal 
the  salvation  of  souls  from  eternal  punishment. 

1  Education    is    Religion    and   Morals,   pages    11    and    12. 

1 


2  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

Guided  by  these  narrow  ideals,  educators  forgot 
to  take  into  account  the  child  life  as  one  of  the  chief 
elements  in  the  development  of  education.  However, 
modern  educators  such  as  Pestalozzi,  Froebel,  and 
others  brought  out  the  importance  of  studying  the 
child  mind.  They  recognized  the  fact  that  for  edu- 
cation to  accomplish  the  most  for  mankind  it  must  be 
cognizant  of  the  laws  and  experiences  of  childhood  as 
well  as  of  the  adult  life.  Education  is  a  progressive 
development  in  which  the  whole  personality  is  in- 
volved. 

During  the  last  few  years  so  much  has  been  writ- 
ten about  the  importance  of  child  study  that  it  has 
been  over-emphasized.  It  has  resulted  in  a  tendency 
to  lose  sight  of  the  real  purpose  of  child  education. 
At  the  present  time  we  note  a  change  coming  in  the 
educational  world.  The  study  of  child  life  is  coming 
to  its  proper  place  and  sphere. 

In  view  of  this  discussion  the  question  arises,  what 
is  education?  It  will  be  in  order  to  give  the  opinions 
of  several  prominent  educators. 

"  Education  is  the  sum  of  the  reflective  efforts 
by  which  we  aid  nature  in  the  development  of  the 
physical,  intellectual  and  moral  faculties  of  man,  in 
view  of  his  perfection,  his  happiness,  and  his  social 
destination." — J.  G.  Compayre:  Lectures  in 
Pedagogy  (Boston,  1893),  pages  1-6. 

"  If  education  cannot  be  identified  with  mere  in- 
struction, what  is  it  ?  What  does  the  term  mean  }  I 
answer.  It  must  mean  a  gradual  adjustment  to  the 
spiritual  possessions  of  the  race." — Butler:  The 
Meaning  of  Education,  page  17. 

"  The  true  end  of  teaching  is  one  with  the  true 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  *  3 

aim  of  life;  and  each  lesson. must  be  presented  with 
the  conscious  purpose  of  making  the  most  out  of  the 
life  of  the  one  taught." — Arnold  Tompkins:  The 
Philosophy  of  Teaching,  page  71. 

"  Education,  in  short,  cannot  be  better  described 
than  by  calling  it  the  organization  of  acquired  habits 
of  conduct  and  tendencies  to  behavior." —  William 
James:     Talks  to  Teachers,  page  29- 

These  definitions  which  we  have  quoted  give  the 
viewpoint  of  educators  in  general.  Present  day  edu- 
cational principles  are  the  outgrowth  of  the  develop- 
ment of  the  progress  of  the  world  in  the  past.  Pres- 
ent and  past  achievements  for  the  truth  lay  the  foun- 
dations for  the  future.  History  shows  that  educa- 
tional progress  has  advanced  along  two  great  lines, 
—  the  psychological  and  sociological.  The  basis  is 
the  psychological  side.  The  child  mind  and  not  the 
adult  forms  the  basis  of  educational  principles.  The 
Master  Teacher  showed  this  significant  fact  when  he 
he  said,  "  Suffer  the  little  children  to  come  unto  me." 
As  has  already  been  mentioned,  it  remained  for  mod- 
em educators  and  religionists  to  readjust  the  psy- 
chology of  education  to  the  ideal  of  the  Master.  The 
child  has  his  distinctive  tendencies,  experiences,  etc., 
which  must  be  studied  and  understood  and  educated, 
if  later,  as  a  man,  he  is  to  do  his  part  in  perpetu- 
ating the  ideals  of  Christian  civilization. 

The  sociological  side  of  education  is  an  offshoot  of 
the  psychological.  The  social  side  of  the  child  na- 
ture is  an  inheritance  of  the  tendencies  of  the  past, 
both  primitive  and  civilized.  The  sociological  part 
of  education  is  a  work  for  the  present  and  the  future. 
The  instinctive  tendencies  of  the  child  life  are  to  be 


4  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

trained  and  developed  so  that  they  may  be  adapted 
to  the  best  physical  environment  and  civilizing  ele- 
ments. On  this  point  Butler  says,  "  Natural  forces 
play  no  small  part  in  adapting  human  beings  to  both 
elements  (physical  and  civilized)  of  environment, 
but  the  process  of  education  is  especially  potent  as 
regards  adaptation  to  the  second  element,  civiliza- 
tion. Civilization  —  man's  spiritual  environment, 
all  his  surroundings  which  are  not  directly  physical 
—  this  it  is  which  has  to  be  conquered,  in  its  elements 
at  least  before  one  can  attain  a  true  education."  ^ 

The  two  great  historic  elements,  education  and  the 
Christian  religion,  have  fostered,  developed,  and  given 
to  us  our  present-day  civilization.  Dr.  Butler  has 
well  said  that  the  child  bom  into  the  present-day 
civilization  comes  into  a  fivefold  inheritance  be- 
queathed to  him  by  the  past,  and  for  him  to  be  truly 
educated  he  must  have  a  knowledge  of  each  one  of 
these  elements,  "  as  well  as  insight  into  them  all  and 
sympathy  with  them  all." 

The  summary  of  his  classification  is  as  follows :  ^ 

(1)  Th-e  Scientific  Inheritance.  By  this  man  is 
entitled  to  know  and  understand  nature  by  utilizing 
all  the  resources  of  modern  scientific  method.  He  is 
entitled  to  know  about  the  world  from  the  viewpoint 
of  the  earlier  people  and  what  it  is  to-day.  It  is  the 
basis  of  a  liberal  education. 

(2)  The  Literary  Inheritance.  The  great  liter- 
ary treasurers  and  storehouses  of  culture  of  the  past 
are  to  be  mastered  through  the  study  of  languages. 
Literature  shows  the  progressive  development  of  the 

1  Butler:    Prikciples    of    Religious    Education,    page    5. 

2  Butler:    The    Meaning    of    Education,    pages    17-34. 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  5 

peoples  of  the  world  which  can  only  be  understood 
and  interpreted  by  the  study  of  language.  Though 
important  as  is  the  study  of  this  great  literary  in- 
heritance, yet  it  narrows  education  to  say  this  study 
alone  is  sufficient.  It  is  to  go  hand  in  hand  with  the 
scientific  inheritance  in  the  early  life  of  the  child 
during  the  period  of  plasticity  or  education. 

(3)  The  Msthetk  Inheritance.  The  aesthetic 
spirit  engenders  the  feeling  for  the  beautiful  and  the 
sublime ;  history  shows  it  occupied  a  prominent  place 
in  the  early  history  of  the  human  race.  It  was  de- 
veloped and  fostered  by  the  Greeks.  Later,  narrow 
religious  ideals  sought  to  suppress  all  feelings  for 
the  beautiful.  But  it  was  impossible.  Ideals  of 
art  and  beauty  were  given  expression  in  the  construc- 
tion of  Gothic  cathedrals  and  the  pictures  of  the 
painters  of  the  Renaissance.  The  importance  of 
aesthetic  training  is  recognized  to-da}^  as  one  of  the 
factors  in  giving  the  child  a  true  education  and  per- 
petuating the  ideals  of  civilization. 

(4)  The  Institutional  Inheritance.  The  history 
of  the  world  shows  three  types  of  political  ideals. 
One  shows  the  individual  to  be  of  no  importance,  but 
only  the  great  mass  of  the  people  are  to  be  con- 
sidered ;  that  is,  individuality  must  be  pressed  down 
for  the  advantage  of  the  whole.  Then  there  is  the 
type  which  is  shown  in  extreme  individualism,  which 
will  not  take  into  consideration  the  welfare  of  society 
as  a  whole  but  seeks  to  make  the  individual  sufficient 
unto  himself.  The  true  type  is  neither  extreme.  It 
gives  individual  worth,  place  and  consideration  but 
makes  it  subservient,  and  responsible  to  law,  the  wel- 
fare of  society,  and  existing  institutions.     This  is  the 


6  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

type  which  our  children  are  to  follow  if  our  civiliza- 
tion of  the  future  is  to  grow  and  develop. 

(5)  The  Religious  Inheritance.  Religion  in  some 
form  or  another  is  common  alike  to  both  primitive 
and  civilized  people.  History  of  the  past  testifies 
to  this  fact  as  w^ell  as  at  the  present  time.  The  re- 
ligious inheritance  of  the  race  is  a  rich  one.  This  is 
true  particularly  of  Christianity  in  the  ideals  it  has 
contributed  to  the  advancement  of  civilization  and 
culture.  Religion  has  always  played  a  prominent 
part  in  education  though  sometimes  its  spirit  was 
narrow,  illiteral,  and  uninformed.  Events  of  com- 
paratively recent  times  have  resulted  in  the  separa- 
tion of  religion  from  education.  The  growth  of  the 
public  school  system  in  the  United  States  has  wit- 
nessed the  divorcement  of  all  religious  instruction 
from  the  schools.  The  result  is  that  our  present  plan 
of  educational  development  is  not  meeting  adequately 
the  needs  of  the  child. 

Since  the  importance  of  religious  education  is  gen- 
erally recognized,  it  is  fitting  that  we  should  define 
it.  The  ideal  of  religious  education  is  the  develop- 
ment of  the  highest  form  of  individual  character  which 
is  to  he  interpreted  in  terms  of  unselfish  service  for 
God  and  mankind. 

When  the  Master  gave  the  command,  "  Go  ye  forth 
and  teach"  (Matt.  28:19-20),  he  laid  stress  upon 
a  great  educational  truth.  His  own  life  and  mission 
exemplified  this  educational  ideal.  He  impressed  this 
message  upon  his  disciples  and  finally  upon  his  fol- 
lowers to  teach.  What  was  the  basis  of  his  teach- 
ing? Unselfish  service  for  God  and  fellow-man. 
This  is  the  central  truth  of  Christianity.     It  is  based 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  7 

upon  the  highest  form  of  character  moulded  in  spirit 
and  in  truth  after  the  life  of  the  perfect  Teacher. 
"  Character,"  says  J.  S.  Mill,  "  is  a  completely  fash- 
ioned will."  James  defines  it  as  a  "  bundle  of  habits." 
The  definition  as  stated  by  James  sets  forth  the  idea 
we  have  in  mind  which  we  have  set  forth  in  our  defini- 
tion of  religious  education ;  namely,  the  habit  of  serv- 
ice which  comes  through  training  every  tendency  of 
the  individual  personality  which  shall  find  expression 
in  unselfish  service  for  God  and  man.  "  No  matter 
how  full  a  reservoir  of  maxims  we  may  possess,  no 
matter  how  good  one's  sentiments  may  be,  if  we  have 
not  taken  advantage  of  every  concrete  opportunity 
to  act,  one's  character  may  remain  entirely  unaffected 
for  the  better."  ^  The  keynote  of  religious  education 
is  to  develop  the  highest  form  of  individual  character 
which  will  seek  active  expression  in  the  form  of  un- 
selfish service. 

RELIGION  AND  EDUCATION 

In  theory,  religion  and  education  may  be  separa- 
ted from  each  other,  but  in  reality  such  a  thought  is 
impossible.  The  aim  and  goal  of  education  and  re- 
ligion are  virtually  the  same.  The  basis  of  true  edu- 
cation is  religion,  and  any  effort  to  make  education 
independent  of  religion  narrows  its  scope,  aim,  and 
goal.  True  education  seeks  to  develop  the  whole 
personality.  This  is  the  ideal  which  education  must 
ever  have  before  it  and  to  which  it  must  tenaciously 
hold.  The  religious  ideal  is  also  concerned  in  the 
whole  personality.     Every  volitional,  emotional,  and 

1  James :   Psychology,  Vol.   I,  page  125. 


8  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

intellectual    tendency    is     touched,    developed,     and 
brought  to  the  highest  possible  form. 

No  child  who  has  lacked  a  careful  and  thorough 
training  in  education  and  religion  can  be  expected 
upon  reaching  maturity  to  do  his  full  duty  to  God, 
his  fellow-man  and  to  himself.  Dr.  King  has  aptly 
written :  "  The  highest  conceivable  culture,  there- 
fore, would  be  the  culture  that  should  enable  a  man 
to  enter  with  appreciation  and  conviction  into  the 
deepest  and  most  significant  personal  life  of  history ; 
and  the  world  is  coming  to  see  with  greater  clearness 
every  day  that  that  life  is  the  life  of  Jesus  Christ."  ^ 

THE  FACTORS 

There  are  three  important  educational  factors 
which  help  us  give  the  child  that  true  instruction  for 
him  to  do  his  full  duty  in  life;  i.e.  (1)  the  school, 
(2)  the  home,  (S)  the  church. 

THE  SCHOOL 

According  to  the  interpretation  of  our  constitu- 
tion, religion  cannot  be  taught  in  our  public  schools. 
In  the  United  States,  church  and  state  are  separate 
and  independent  of  each  other,  yet  a  reciprocal  rela- 
tion exists  between  them. 

We  have  already  written  about  the  supreme  impor- 
tance and  sphere  of  religion  in  order  to  make  up  an 
all  round  and  efficient  education.  There  is  but  one 
conclusion  to  reach  with  respect  to  our  public  schools, 
which  leads  us  to  say  that  its  educational  work,  there- 
fore, is  inadequately   incomplete. 

We  recognize  the  importance  of  reading  the  Bible 

1  Personal   and    Ideal   Elements   in    Education,   page   78. 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  9 

in  the  schools,  but  we  cannot  call  this  exercise  a  re- 
ligious instruction,  nor  would  we  want  it  designated 
by  such  a  term.  When  this  reading  is  done  with  dis- 
crimination and  without  comment  on  the  choice  and 
splendid  portions  of  Scripture  which  should  always 
be  read,  we  believe  great  good  can  be  accomplished  in 
many  ways.  This  reading  may  not  be  instructive 
in  the  analytic  sense,  but  the  mind  of  pupils  is  im- 
pressed with  the  beauty  and  simplicity  of  God's  word, 
and  we  sincerely  believe  a  thirst  will  be  awakened  in 
the  heart  of  the  child  for  a  greater  knowledge  of  the 
Word. 

There  are  many  educators  and  religionists  who  ad- 
vocate the  study  of  religion  in  the  public  schools. 
They  make  a  contradistinction  between  religious 
teaching  and  denominationalism.  They  advocate 
that  religious  instruction  based  on  broad  general 
terms  of  religious  concepts  free  from  doctrinal, 
creedal,  and  denominational  interpretations,  could  be 
put  into  the  school  curriculum.  We  realize  there  is 
much  force  and  consideration  given  to  their  argu- 
ments, but  we  cannot  see  the  feasibility  of  the  plan. 
We  believe  in  the  broad  interpretation  of  religion  for 
it  to  be  thoroughly  adaptable  to  all  classes  and  con- 
ditions of  humanity.  When  we  speak  of  religion,  we 
are,  of  course,  referring  to  the  broad  principles  of 
Christianity  upon  which  the  advocates  of  this  theory 
agree,  as  it  is  the  only  religion  which  can  give  a  posi- 
tive civilization  to  the  world.  We  do  not  believe  that 
the  introduction  of  religious  instruction,  even  on  the 
basis  of  the  broadest  interpretation  of  Christian 
teachings,  would  work  out  in  practice.  It  is  very 
evident  that  such  a  plan  would  not  be  an  acceptable 


10  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

one  to  the  Hebrew,  Catholic,  and  a  majority  of  the 
Protestant  and  many  other  forms  of  religious  life 
which  are  represented  in  our  public  schools.  All 
these  conditions  must  be  borne  in  mind  in  advocating 
this  theory.  At  the  same  time  it  is  well-nigh  impos- 
sible to  interpret  religion  on  the  broadest  basis,  to 
elminate  every  iota  of  denominational  and  doctrinal 
viewpoint.  The  public  school  is  not  a  religious  nor 
an  anti-religious  school,  but  it  is  a  secular  institution 
and  we  want  to  see  it  remain  as  such.  We  want  to 
see  it  give  the  best  instruction  possible  so  that  our 
children  may  become  well  educated  along  scientific, 
literary,  aesthetic,  and  institutional  lines. 

We  recognize  that  there  is  considerable  weight  in 
the  proposition  which  is  set  forth  in  citing  the  German 
Schools  as  an  example  where  an  excellent 
and  practical  course  of  religious  instruction  is 
obtained.  We  have  every  reason  to  expect  this 
condition  of  affairs  there.  The  German  people 
are  the  inheritors  of  the  great  Lutheran  move- 
ment, and  Luther  was  a  staunch  champion  and  advo- 
cate of  religious  education  in  the  schools.  Such 
splendid  opportunities  are  afforded  in  Germany  for 
the  advancement  of  religious  instruction  that  we  have 
every  reason  to  expect  such  instruction  to  be  given 
as  shall  be  the  best.  Since  the  Lutheran  faith  is  the 
state  church  of  Germany,  these  measures  of  religious 
instruction  have  the  support  of  the  government.  In 
the  United  States  such  conditions  do  not  obtain. 
Nor  would  we  want  them  to  exist.  We  realize  the 
supreme  necessity  of  having  the  church  and  the  de- 
pendence of  the  government  upon  the  church,  but  we 
would  not  want  some  particular  denomination  to  be 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  11 

the  state  church.  American  ideals  and  conceptions 
of  religion  and  civil  liberty  and  democracy  show  that 
these  principles  are  foreign  to  our  viewpoint. 

We  agree  with  many  educators  that  the  Bible 
should  be  placed  in  our  public  schools  to  be  studied 
as  literature,  history,  and  morals.  But  let  it  be 
stated  here  that  the  study  of  the  Bible  thus  is  not  re- 
ligious instruction,  and  the  Bible  to  be  studied  along 
the  three  lines  suggested  must  be  confined  to  the  basic 
fundamentals  of  these  subjects.  We  think  the  Bible 
from  this  viewpoint  should  find  a  place  in  our  schools. 
It  is  the  general  verdict  of  all  peoples  who  know  about 
the  Bible  that  it  is  the  repository  of  the  world's  sub- 
limest  literature !  If  the  study  of  the  Koran,  Hindu 
writings,  Milton,  "  Lamb's  Tales,"  etc.,  may  find  a 
place  in  our  school  curriculum  if  the  teacher  so  de- 
sires, why  should  the  historical  study  of  Joshua,  a 
literary  study  of  the  Psalms,  or  a  study  of  the  moral 
precepts  of  the  Pauline  epistles  be  forbidden.''  We 
cannot  see  any  sane  reason  for  their  omission. 

Dr.  Seeley  in  his  charmingly  written  book  says,  "  I 
believe  that  our  teachers  should  have  larger  rights 
of  way  to  emphasize  the  importance  of  these  virtues 
(i.e.  honesty,  sobriety,  etc.),  so  that  w4th  the  culture 
and  furnishing  of  the  intellect,  there  shall  come  the 
development  of  the  individual  along  moral  lines  — 
or  religious  lines,  if  you  please  —  and  yet  not  in  a 
sectarian  way.  Our  teachers  and  superintendents, 
as  a  rule,  are  Christian  men  and  women,  and  there  go 
out  indirectly  in  their  lives  influences  in  this  direc- 
tion." 1 

However,  we  cannot  agree  with  Dr.  Seeley  in  ad- 
1  Seeley:   Foundation   of   Education,  page  248. 


12  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

vocating  the  study  of  the  Bible  as  a  religious  book, 
for  the  reason  previously  stated,  and  also  for  any  of 
the  following  examples.  The  Hebrew  father  would 
have  every  right  to  object,  according  to  his  religious 
beliefs  and  traditions,  to  the  principles  of  the  Chris- 
tian religion  being  taught  to  his  child.  The  Bible  is 
broad  and  big  enough  in  its  wonderful  work  to  teach 
the  highest  form  of  morals  without  touching  upon  its 
religious  precepts.  Again  we  say  religion  cannot  be 
consistently  taught  in  our  public  schools.  However, 
the  two  great  factors  which  are  to  teach  our  children 
religious  truths  are  the  home  and  the  church. 

THE  HOME 

The  home  is  the  first  and  always  should  remain  the 
most  important  factor  in  a  child's  education.  This 
training  should  extend  from  the  early  years  of  child- 
hood to  manhood.  The  ancient  Hebrews  recognized 
the  supreme  importance  of  home  instruction,  and  they 
earnestly  tried  to  bring  up  their  children  in  the  fear 
and  admonition  of  the  Lord.  When  this  ideal  was 
earnestly  adhered  to,  peace,  joy,  and  prosperity 
crowned  the  people  of  Israel.  In  this  respect  the  an- 
cient Hebrew  people  will  always  be  an  example  for 
the  present  and  future  generations. 

The  home  is  the  basic  unit  of  society.  It  is  such 
an  important  institution  that  great  emphasis  needs 
to  be  laid  upon  the  instruction  of  Biblical  truths 
therein.  Alas!  in  too  many  of  our  homes  the  Bible 
is  a  closed  book  and  religious  instruction  is  never 
given  at  all.  No  parent  can  expect  the  school  and 
the  church  to  give  all  the  education  the  child  needs. 
Too  many  parents  seek  to  shift  all  of  the  training 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  13 

of  their  children  upon  the  church  and  the  school. 
This  is  impossible.  These  two  important  educa- 
tional factors  can  never  give  to  a  child  the  training 
which  is  expected  to  come  from  the  hearth-stone. 
Time  and  their  specialized  organization  make  it  im- 
possible. 

There  should  always  be  the  closest  cooperation 
between  the  home  and  the  school  and  the  church. 
The  parents  should  take  a  hearty  interest  in  the 
daily  school  tasks  of  their  children,  and  whatever 
home  work  may  be  required  by  the  school  authorities, 
they  should  see  that  their  children  perform  faithfully 
and  well.  By  this  close  cooperation  the  efficiency  of 
the  public  schools  would  be  increased. 

The  home  should  also  cooperate  more  earnestly 
with  the  church  and  give  it  better  support  and  see 
that  the  children  attend  the  sessions  of  the  Sunday 
School  regularly  and  faithfully.  Too  many  parents 
think  it  is  the  duty  of  the  pastor  and  Bible  School 
teacher  alone  to  see  that  their  children  attend  church 
worship  and  the  sessions  of  the  Bible  School.  They 
frequently  meet  with  the  experience  of  a  Bible  School 
teacher  who  once  visited  a  home  to  see  that  one  of  the 
daughters  attended  her  Bible  School  class  more  regu- 
larly. The  mother  said  that  it  was  the  duty  of  the 
teacher  to  see  that  the  daughter  attended  regularly. 
We  agree  that  it  is  the  duty  of  pastors  and  teachers 
to  see  that  the  children  come  regularly,  but  it  is  not 
their  whole  nor  first  duty,  for  this  rests  upon  the 
home. 

The  home,  therefore,  remains  the  first  important 
factor  in  the  religious  education  of  the  child  life. 


14  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 


THE  CHURCH 

The  importance  of  the  church  to  a  community  is 
well  recognized.  No  community  could  exist  without 
it.  The  church,  particularly  through  the  Bible 
School,  is  the  second  important  factor  for  religious 
education.  A  great  responsibility  rests  upon  the 
Bible  School,  and  it  is  a  much  needed  part  of  our  edu- 
cational work  to-day.  For  it  to  do  the  work  of  re- 
ligious education  which  is  in  a  large  measure  incum- 
bent upon  it,  it  must  be  efficiently  organized  and 
utilize  the  best  methods  for  it  to  attain  the  purpose 
of  its  organization. 

The  Bible  School  must  work  in  the  closest  coopera- 
tion with  the  public  school  because  upon  it  devolves 
for  the  most  part  the  task  of  teaching  the  child  the 
religious  principles  which  the  public  school  does  not. 

The  Bible  School  needs  to  be  thoroughly  and  sys- 
tematically organized.  Its  curriculum  needs  to  be 
placed  on  a  scientific  and  analytic  basis  if  efficient  in- 
struction is  to  be  given.  Its  teachings  must  be 
adaptable  to  child  life,  with  a  knowledge  of  the  capac- 
ities and  needs  of  the  child.  The  school,  it  must  be 
remembered,  is  not  only  to  teach  religion  as  such,  per 
se,  but  its  curriculum  should  correlate  as  closely  as 
possible  with  the  public  school  teaching.  In  other 
words.  Biblical  history,  geography,  biography,  liter- 
ature, art,  and  precepts  should  be  carefully  taught, 
as  in  the  public  schools.  There  needs  to  be  careful 
and  systematic  grading  of  the  classes  so  that  the 
teaching  of  these  studies  may  be  adaptable  to  the 
capacities  of  the  children. 

The  teachers  need  to  be  trained  and  thoroughly 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  15 

prepared  to  carry  on  their  work.  Bible  School 
teaching,  like  public  school  teaching,  requires  train- 
ing to  be  thoroughly  done. 

In  order  that  the  work  of  the  Bible  School  may  be 
advanced,  there  needs  to  be  the  closest  cooperation 
between  the  home  and  the  school.  It  is  necessary  if 
the  school  is  to  be  efficient  in  teaching  the  children 
of  the  household.  The  spirit  of  cooperation  between 
the  two  must  be  very  close  in  order  to  secure  regular 
attendance  upon  the  Bible  School.  This  is  one  of 
the  difficult  problems  which  we  face  at  present.  At- 
tendance upon  the  public  school  is  compulsory ;  not 
so  with  the  Bible  School.  The  attendance  there  is 
often  irregular  on  the  part  of  a  large  number  of 
children,  and  under  present  conditions  an  exceedingly 
large  number  of  children  are  not  receiving  religious 
instruction.  However,  we  believe  this  problem  can  be 
reduced  to  a  minimum  or  overcome  entirely  by  close 
cooperation  of  Bible  School  and  home.  Perhaps  on 
this  point  a  suggestion  would  be  in  order  which  we 
believe  could  be  worked  out  along  practical  lines  if 
the  Bible  School  would  employ  a  trained  and  paid 
secretary  for  this  work,  or  if  a  number  of  churches 
in  the  city  or  town  would  group  together  to  meet 
the  expense.  It  should  be  the  duty  of  this  secre- 
tary to  come  into  contact  with  each  home  and  get  the 
children  to  go  to  the  school  of  their  denomination. 
Appeal  to  the  responsibility  of  parents  is  the  only 
way  the  children  can  ever  be  brought  into  the  Sunday 
School. 

We  believe,  too,  that  the  stud\^  period  for  the  Bible 
School  lesson  should  cover  a  period  of  at  least  one 
hour  instead  of  half  an  hour.     The  lesson  period  may 


16  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

be  made  so  interesting  and  inspiring  by  a  trained 
teacher  that  there  would  be  no  difficulty  experienced 
on  this  point.  We  believe  it  would  be  feasible  for 
each  child  to  do  a  little  home  work  in  various  exer- 
cises, which  could  be  reported  to  the  teacher  the  fol- 
lowing Sunday.  This  work  could  be  of  such  a  nature 
as  not  to  interfere  with  the  public  school  work.  In 
any  event  we  see  the  need  and  importance  of  religious 
education,  and  that  the  work  of  carrying  it  on  de- 
volves upon  the  Bible  School.  This  great  institution 
we  want  to  make  more  efficient  in  every  way  possible. 


CHAPTER  II 

HISTORY   OF  RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION: 
THE  EARLY  PERIOD 

Egypt  —  China  —  Babylonia  and  Assyria  —  The 
Jews:  the  ideal  of  Jewish  education;  Ezra  and  his 
work;  schools  of  the  later  period;  female  education 
—  The  Hindus:  their  literature  —  Buddhism;  educa- 
tional principles  —  The  Medo-Persians:  religious 
ideals;  educational  conceptions  —  The  Hellenic  Peo- 
ple: arty  music  and  poetry;  the  schools;  religious 
education  —  The  Romans:  religion  and  education  — 
The  Catechetical  Schools;  classes  and  instruction. 

In  a  text-book  of  this  nature  it  is  impossible  to 
give  a  complete  and  detailed  account  of  educational 
development  from  the  historical  viewpoint.  In  our 
historical  treatment  we  have  followed  particularly  the 
religious  side  of  education,  and  our  account,  though 
general,  is  set  forth  in  sufficient  detail  to  bring  out 
the  phases  we  deem  important  to  emphasize. 

Down  through  the  centuries,  nations,  people,  and 
various  leaders  have  contributed  something  to  the 
progressive  development  of  education.  We  have 
picked  out  particular  nations  in  the  past  who  have 
made  definite  contributions  to  religious  education. 
In  the  later  history  we  point  out  the  contributions 
likewise    resulting    from    nations,    institutions,    and 

17 


18  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

leaders.  Our  treatment  is  consecutive  and  progres- 
sive. One  of  the  striking  points  of  history  is  the 
close  relationship  of  religion  and  education.  Our 
historical  studies  are  the  following: 

EGYPT 

The  early  history  of  Egypt  is  largely  a  matter  of 
tradition.  The  beginning  of  its  history  has  been 
pushed  back  as  early  as  5000  b.  c.  The  various  lit- 
tle kingdoms  were  united  with  one  state  about  3400 
B.  c.  From  this  date  down  to  the  Roman  Conquest, 
30  B.  c,  her  influence  in  the  religious  and  intellectual 
world  was  manifested. 

Her  earliest  gods  were  the  Nile  and  the  Sun-god 
(Re).  They  were  universally  worshipped.  The 
worship  of  a  multitude  of  local  deities  also  obtained. 
An  air  of  mystery  has  always  pervaded  her  religious 
life. 

For  our  most  complete  knowledge  of  the  religious 
life  we  are  indebted  to  the  oldest  piece  of  sacred 
Egyptian  literature,  called  the  "  Pyramid  Texts." 

One  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  religion  is  the  con- 
crete form  of  expression.  The  Egyptian  borrowed 
his  terminology  from  the  material  world,  and  his 
mind  did  not  possess  the  faculty  of  developing  ab- 
stract terminology. 

The  Egyptians  made  great  progress  in  architec- 
ture. Their  temples  were  magnificent  pieces  of  struc- 
ture, but  their  paintings  and  sculpture  were  too  stiff 
and  formal.  They  made  some  advances  in  science. 
They  had  a  knowledge  of  medicine,  astronomy,  mathe- 
matics, and  engineering. 

Even  at  an  early  date,  they  had  an  extensive  liter- 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  19 

ature.  They  had  books  of  poetry,  morals,  religion, 
oratory,  travel,  etc.  Their  chief  sacred  literature 
consisted  of  the  "  Pyramid  Texts,"  "  Coffin  Texts," 
and  "  Book  of  the  Dead."  They  were  votaries  of 
music,  but  it  was  of  the  most  primitive  nature. 

There  was  a  close  affiliation  of  church  and  state  in 
Egypt.  The  priestly  class  wielded  tremendous 
power  and  influence.  The  temple  was  not  only  the 
place  of  worship  and  sacrifice,  but  also  became  the 
school  and  university.  The  three  most  prominent 
temple  universities  were  at  Memphis,  Heliopolis,  and 
Thebes.  At  these  schools,  the  priests  were  educated 
and  trained  in  the  traditional  religious  ceremonies, 
mathematics,  ethics,  astronomy,  and  astrology.  The 
children  of  nobility  and  royalty  were  also  educated 
here. 

One  of  the  most  important  professions  was  that 
of  the  scribe.  He  was  instructed  at  one  of  the  chief 
temple  colleges  in  law,  ethics,  and  accounts.  The 
scribe  had  as  one  of  his  chief  duties  the  making  of 
copies  of  the  sacred  rituals  and  manuscripts. 

At  its  best  the  religious  educational  systems  of 
Egypt  did  not  raise  the  cultural  life  of  the  people 
to  a  high  standard.  In  reality  the  moral  practices 
were  at  low  ebb.  The  acme  of  religious  teaching  cen- 
tered in  the  universal  belief  of  immortality.  "  His 
religion  was  not  a  reasoned  or  philosophic  religion 
even  in  its  highest  forms.  It  was  the  fruit  of  a 
dreamy  meditation  on  the  broad  aspects  of  life  and 
death  rather  than  of  speculative  analysis.  In  ethics, 
too,  his  morality  was  preceptive  and  dogmatic  —  not 
a  subject  of  philosophic  investigation."  ^ 

1  Laurie:    Pre-Christiax     Education,    page    40. 


W  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

The  belief  in  life  after  death  was  universal.  They 
believed  that  everyone  born  into  the  world  was  given 
by  the  gods  the  "  Ka,"  which  was  a  kind  of  guardian 
spirit  which  was  somewhat  beneficial  to  the  individual 
during  his  earth  life.  But  the  chief  value  of  the 
"  Ka  "  was  after  death.  He  was  a  kind  of  superior 
genius  intended  to  guide  the  fortunes  of  the  individual 
in  the  hereafter,  for  it  was  in  the  world  of  the  here- 
after that  he  chiefly,  if  not  exclusively,  had  his  abode, 
and  there  he  awaited  the  coming  of  his  earthly  com- 
panion. In  the  oldest  inscriptions  the  death  of  a 
man  may  be  stated  by  saying  that  "  he  goes  to  his 
'  Ka  '  " ;  when  Osiris  dies,  he  "  goes  to  his  '  Ka.'  "  ^ 

The  viewpoint  of  life  beyond  the  tomb  was  dreary 
and  gloomy.  Even  at  the  flood-tide  of  religious 
thought,  when  the  hope  of  eternal  bliss  was  injected, 
the  idea  of  a  gloomy  existence  obtained. 

CHINA 

The  Chinese  claim  that  their  history  extends  to 
the  remotest  antiquity.  Scholars  generally  accept 
the  date  2500  b.  c.  as  a  reliable  point  in  the  study 
of  the  nation's  history.  With  the  exception  of  the 
last  fifteen  years,  China  has  made  little  progress  in 
civil  and  educational  affairs  for  more  than  2,000 
years.  They  have  been  gliided  by  tradition  and  have 
refused  to  get  out  of  the  rut. 

The  sacred  books  reflect  the  various  phases  of 
Chinese  life.  Confucius,  who  was  born  about  551 
B.  c,  edited  and  annotated  the  sacred  books.  His 
chief  work  was  the  *'  Doctrine  of  the  Mean."     The 

1  Breasted:  Religion  and  Thought  in  Ancient  Egypt, 
page  52. 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  21 

opening  sentence  is,  "  What  heaven  has  conferred  is 
called  the  nature ;  an  accordance  with  this  nature  is 
called  the  path  of  duty ;  the  regulation  of  this  path 
is  called  instruction."  ^ 

Confucius  recognized  the  existence  of  a  Supreme 
Being  whom  he  called,  "  Supreme  Ruler  of  Heaven." 
He  was  vitally  interested  in  the  moral  order  and 
social  well-being  of  his  people.  Confucius  is  the 
ideal  man  of  China. 

The  family  is  the  base  of  Chinese  education  as  well 
as  the  state.  The  state  is  a  family  in  a  more  com- 
plete form.  The  father's  power  in  the  family  life  is 
absolute ;  the  wife  in  reality  is  a  slave  to  her  husband. 

The  educational  system  has  built  up  an  intellectual 
aristocracy,  but  it  has  failed  to  reach  the  great  mass 
of  people.  The  opportunity  is  present,  but  the  great 
majority  of  Chinese  people  have  neither  time  nor 
money  to  lay  hold  of  it.  In  brief,  the  general  educa- 
tional method  is  the  memoriter  one.  Religious  edu- 
cation per  se  is  lacking  in  China. 

In  a  nation  where  so  much  stress  has  been  laid  on 
propriet}^  of  conduct,  morality,  and  other  virtues, 
one  would  expect  to  find  high  standards,  whereas  the 
reverse  is  the  result.  In  the  Chinese  educational 
scheme,  training  and  discipline  have  been  supplanted 
by  instruction  which  makes  a  high  moral  state  im- 
possible. Their  educational  system  fails  to  inspire 
the  initiative  in  the  individual.  He  is  hampered  by 
custom,  rules,  ceremonies,  and  tradition.  He  is  re- 
stricted from  developing  a  free  personality.  This 
lack  of  moral  freedom  is  the  cause  of  their  inactivity 
and  lack  of  progress. 

1  Legge :   Reugioks   of  China,  page   139. 


22  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

BABYLONIA  AND  ASSYRIA 

The  Babylonian  civilization  which  followed  the 
Sumir-Accadian  in  the  Mesopotamian  plains,  was  in 
reality  an  outgrowth  of  the  earlier  culture.  The  city 
of  Babylon  under  the  leadership  of  King  Hammurabi 
about  2000  B.  c.  became  the  center  of  royalty,  power, 
and  influence. 

They  inherited  the  magical  incantations,  belief  in 
demons,  animistic  and  fetichistic  worship  as  religious 
rites  from  the  previous  civilization.  The  chief  Baby- 
lonian god  was  Marduk.  There  are  traces  in  the 
sacred  literature  of  a  great  rise  in  religious  concep- 
tions which  contain  no  traces  of  animism  or  magic. 
But  to  have  these  ideals  crystalized  into  larger  and 
purer  religious  life  was  not  to  be  the  happy  lot  of 
Babylonia.  They  believed  in  life  after  death,  but  the 
outlook  beyond  the  grave  was  sad  and  gloomy. 

About  1000  B.  c.  the  Assyrians  conquered  Baby- 
lon, and  in  time  Babylonia  came  entirely  under  As- 
syrian denomination.  The  Assyrians  were  a  warlike 
people.  Their  capital  was  the  city  of  Nineveh. 
Ashur  became  their  chief  deity,  and  as  the  country 
advanced  in  power  and  influence,  so  their  god  became 
greater  in  dignity. 

Judging  from  the  large  number  of  clay  tablets 
which  have  been  excavated,  both  countries  enjoyed 
an  extensive  literature.  It  seems  that  each  city  had 
its  library  of  clay  bricks.  One  of  the  largest  libra- 
ries belonging  to  Ashurbanapal,  was  at  Nineveh 
(668-626  B.  c.)  It  contained  thousands  upon  thou- 
sands of  clay  tablets. 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  23 

The  relation  of  religion  to  culture,  particularly  in 
Babylonia,  was  very  close.  The  Babylonian  litera- 
ture is  illustrative  of  the  fact,  as  it  is  almost  entirely 
of  a  religious  nature. 

The  religious  education,  in  reality  the  intellectual 
life  of  both  countries,  was  centered  in  the  priesthood. 
They  wielded  tremendous  power  in  religion  and  state 
aifairs.  With  each  temple  was  connected  a  school 
which  was  presided  over  and  taught  by  the  priestly 
class.     All  learning  was  of  a  religious  nature. 

"  It  is  to  the  temple  schools  that  we  owe  the  intel- 
lectual activity  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria.  The  in- 
centive to  gather  collections  of  omens,  of  incanta- 
tions, and  of  medical  compilations  came  from  the 
schools.  Though  the  motive  was  purely  practical  — 
viz,  to  furnish  handbooks  for  the  priests  and  to  train 
young  candidates  for  the  priesthood  —  nevertheless 
the  incentive  was  intellectual  both  in  character  and 
scope,  and  necessarily  resulted  in  raising  the  stand- 
ard of  the  priesthood  and  in  stimulating  the  literary 
spirit.  The  popular  myths  and  legends  were  given  a 
literar}^  form,  and  preserved  in  the  archives  of  the 
temple  schools.  An  interest  in  fables  was  aroused, 
and  the  wisdom  of  the  past  preserved  for  future 
generations."  ^ 

THE  JEWS 

The  Jews  trace  their  history  back  to  the  call  of 
Abram  by  the  Lord  from  Ur  of  the  Chaldees,  who 
emigrated  to   Canaan   about  2000   b.   c.      However, 

iJastrow:    Religious    Belief    in    Babyloxia    axd    Assybia, 
page   279. 


M  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

their  history  as  a  people  dates  from  about  1490  b.  c. 
when  they  emigrated  from  Egypt  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Moses. 

Moses  was  a  remarkable  man  in  every  respect. 
He  stands  out  in  primitive  history  as  its  greatest 
leader.  He  was  leader  and  schoolmaster  for  his  peo- 
ple. He  presented  to  them  the  conception  of  God  as 
a  Being  who  was  infinite,  pure,  ethical,  without  limi- 
tation, who  was  ready  to  bless,  and  who  also  required 
from  them  obedience  and  service  and  worship. 

Moses  impressed  upon  his  people  the  necessity  of 
remembering  the  law  and  ceremonies  and  of  seeing 
that  they  were  fulfilled  to  the  letter.  He  emphasized 
the  importance  of  parents  instructing  their  children 
at  a  tender  age  in  the  mysteries  and  elements  of  their 
holy  religion.  In  Deuteronomy  6 :  6-7  we  read, 
"  And  these  words,  which  I  command  thee  this  day, 
shall  be  upon  thy  hearts,  and  thou  shalt  teach  them 
diligently  unto  thy  children,  and  shalt  talk  of  them 
when  thou  sittest  in  thy  house,  and  when  thou  walkest 
by  the  way,  and  when  thou  liest  down,  and  when  thou 
risest  up."  (Cf.  Deut.  4:9;  6:6-9;  6:20-25;  31: 
10-13;  32:46.) 

According  to  Micah  3:11,  the  priests  were  among 
the  earliest  religious  teachers  of  the  people. 

Then  in  Joshua  8 :  30-35  we  read  where  the 
people  were  gathered  together  in  front  of  Mount 
Gerizim  and  Mount  Ebal  where  he  had  erected  altars 
and  where  he  read  the  word  of  the  law  to  them. 
"  There  was  not  a  word  of  all  that  Moses  commanded, 
which  Joshua  read  not  before  all  the  assembly  of 
Israel,  and  the  women  and  the  little  ones,  and  the  so- 
journers that  were  among  them." 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  ^5 

THE    IDEAL    OF    JEWISH    EDUCATION 

"  The  sages  of  the  Talmud  did  not  merely  regard 
the  intellectual  accomplishments  which  are  derived 
from  education,  but  they  also,  nay  chiefly,  looked 
upon  the  moral  advantages  and  well-regulated  dis- 
position which  it  should  produce.  Their  efforts  in 
this  respect  were  directed  not  only  to  impart  knowl- 
edge to  the  young,  but  also  to  imbue  them  with  love 
and  reverence  for  God,  as  well  as  to  develop  in  them 
a  good  disposition  and  sound  moral  principles. 
Honest  thoughts  and  honest  deeds  should  be  the  re- 
sult of  a  study  of  knowledge  and  wisdom."  ^ 

THE  SCHOOLS  OF  THE  PROPHETS 

The  teachers  were  called  fathers  and  the  students 
were  known  as  "  sons  of  the  prophets."  These 
schools  were  not  to  prepare  candidates  for  the  pro- 
phetic order,  as  the  call  of  a  prophet  to  service  was 
based  upon  another  idea.  These  schools  were  more 
in  the  nature  of  conferences  or  institutes  for  the  pur- 
pose of  mutual  fellowship  and  edification.  Probably 
music  and  chanting  were  also  discussed. 

The  greatest  teachers  of  these  schools  were  Samuel, 
Elijah,  and  Elisha.  They  met  at  Ramah,  Bethel, 
Jericho,  Gilgal,  and  Jordan.  Through  the  mutual 
association  of  the  prophets  and  students,  many  of 
the  future  leaders,  reformers,  and  poets  were  trained. 

EZRA    AND    HIS    WORK 

With  the  return  of  the  Hebrews  from  their  exile 
a  new  era  began  in  their  religious  education.     Ezra, 

1  Spiers:  School  System  of  the  Talmud,  pages  41  and  42. 


26  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

the  scribe,  learned  in  the  law,  became  their  great  re- 
ligious leader.  To  promote  religious  instruction 
in  a  systematic  way,  it  seems  that  the  calling  of  the 
congregation  together  as  referred  to  in  Nehemiah  8 
marks  the  incipiency  of  the  movement.  The  book  of 
the  law  became  the  text  book  of  the  people,  and  they 
were  taught  by  priests  properly  accredited  for  the 
work.  "  The  Bible  became  the  spelling-book,  the 
community  a  school,  religion  an  affair  of  teaching  and 
learning.  Piety  and  education  were  inseparable ; 
whoever  could  not  read  was  no  true  Jew.  We  may 
say  that  in  this  way  were  created  the  beginning  of 
popular  education.  In  what  way  this  took  place  is, 
it  is  true,  wrapped  in  mystery ;  in  the  synagogue  men 
did  not  learn  to  write  and  read,  and  the  scribes  were 
not  elementary  teachers.  But  the  ideal  of  education 
for  religion's  sake  was  set  up,  and  awoke  emulation 
even  though  the  goal  was  not  reached  all  at  once."  ^ 

It  was  during  this  period  that  the  synagogue  seems 
to  have  been  established.  Many  regard  Ezra  as  the 
founder  of  it.  However,  it  marks  a  distinctive 
period  in  the  religious  educational  history  of  the  He- 
brew people  when  systematic  religious  instruction 
was  to  be  given  to  them. 

In  time,  wherever  a  synagogue  was  found,  there  a 
school  was  connected  with  it.  The  curriculum  con- 
sisted in  the  study  of  the  Scriptures,  the  Hebrew  lan- 
guage, writing,  and  reading.  Various  subjects  were 
discussed  and  a  system  of  catechetics  obtained. 

A  brief  description  of  the  synagogue  school  is 
quoted  as  follows  from  Schaff-Herzog :  "  The  school 
room  is  the  interior  of  a  squalid  building  rudely  con- 

1  Hastings :    Bible   Dictionaey,   Vol.    I,   page   647. 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  27 

structed  of  stone,  with  a  domed  roof  and  white- 
washed walls,  a  wooden  desk  or  cupboard  on  one  side, 
and  an  inscription  in  Hebrew  over  the  door.  From 
the  building,  as  we  approach,  comes  the  hum  of  many 
children's  voices  repeating  the  verses  of  the  sacred 
Torah  in  unthinking  and  perfunctory  monotone. 
The  aged  teacher  sits  silent  in  the  midst.  As  we 
look  in,  we  see  his  huge  turban,  his  gray  beard,  and 
solemn  features,  appearing  over  the  ruddy  face  of  the 
dark-eyed  boys  who  sit  on  the  floor  around  him.  .  .  . 
The  scholars  are  the  children  of  the  richer  members 
of  the  village  community, —  of  the  Bethamen,  or  '  men 
of  leisure,'  who  form  the  representative  congregation 
at  every  synagogue  service,  or  of  the  '  standing  men,' 
who  go  up  yearly  with  the  village  priest  for  a  week  in 
Jerusalem  to  fulfill  similar  functions  in  the  temple 
ritual." 

The  period  from  the  Return  to  about  75  b.  c.  was 
also  noted  particularly  for  the  rise  of  a  professional 
class  of  teachers  known  as  the  Sopherim  or  scribes. 
They  became  interested  in  the  law  and  literature  of 
the  past,  devoting  their  time  to  its  study  and  elucida- 
tion. They  also  advanced  the  educational  work 
which  Ezra  had  started.  The  Book  of  Proverbs  was 
the  religious  pedagogical  handbook  of  this  period. 

SCHOOLS    OF    THE    LATER    PERIOD 

About  one  hundred  years  before  the  fall  of  Jerusa- 
lem it  is  evident  that  elementary  schools  existed.  In 
64?  A.  D.,  when  Joshua  ben-Gamala  (Gamaliel)  was 
High  Priest,  he  ordained  that  attendance  at  the  ele- 
mentary schools  should  be  compulsory. 

Among  the  Jews  it  was  the  custom,  rigidly  carried 


2S  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

out,  to  instruct  their  boys  at  a  very  early  age  in  the 
mysteries  of  their  religion.  The  Talmud  says,  "  As 
soon  as  the  child  begins  to  speak,  the  father  should 
teach  him  to  say  in  Hebrew,  '  The  Law  which  Moses 
commanded  us  is  the  heritage  of  the  congregation  of 
Jacob,'  and  also  the  first  verse  of  the  Shemang: 
'  Hear,  O  Israel,  the  Eternal  our  God  is  one  God.'  " 

It  was  necessary  for  the  boy  to  be  six  years  of  age 
before  he  could  be  enrolled  as  a  pupil  in  the  schools. 
During  his  first  four  years  of  school  life  his  only  text- 
book was  the  Bible.  He  was  taught  the  Mishna  from 
his  tenth  to  fifteenth  year.  After  his  fifteenth  year 
he  was  instructed  in  the  Gemorah. 

The  Jewish  pedagogical  system  required  the 
teacher  to  be  brief  in  his  teaching.  Rambling  ex- 
planations were  to  be  avoided.  The  instruction  was 
largely  memory  work,  as  he  sought  to  impress  the 
truths  upon  the  mind  through  concise  teaching  and 
also  to  strengthen  the  memory. 

The  teachers  who  taught  the  respective  branches 
of  study  were  especially  trained  for  their  work.  The 
schools  were  organized  so  that  each  teacher  should 
instruct  only  twenty-five  pupils. 

The  time  set  aside  for  school  instruction  was  zeal- 
ously guarded  and  no  encroachments  upon  it  were 
permitted.  The  school  sessions  were  held  early  in  the 
morning  and  late  in  the  evening.  Sabbaths  and  festi- 
val days  were  the  only  school  holidays  permissible. 

The  discipline  generally  followed  was  the  rules  re- 
quired by  the  Talmud :  ( 1 )  The  pupil  must  attend 
the  school  regularly.  (2)  During  lessons  no  pupil 
is  allowed  to  leave  his  seat  for  any  purpose  without 
permission  of  the  master.      (3)   No  pupil  must  ask 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  29 

questions  which  have  no  reference  to  the  subject 
taught.  (4)  Two  pupils  must  not  ask  a  question  at 
the  same  time.  (5)  No  pupil  shall  ask  any  question 
at  the  moment  when  the  master  enters  the  school. 
(6)  Pupils  must  prepare  and  learn  thoroughly  the 
lessons  and  exercises  given  them  for  each  day.^ 

A  friendly  and  affectionate  relationship  was  sought 
between  teacher  and  pupil.  However,  the  pupil  was 
to  remember  that  a  high  degree  of  reverence  was  due 
his  instructor.  Corporal  punishment  was  forbidden 
except  under  extraordinary  circumstances.  The 
highest  degree  of  efficiency  in  study  and  instruction 
was  sought  by  appealing  to  the  honor  of  the  pupils. 

FEMALE    EDUCATION 

The  education  of  the  girls  of  the  family  was  not 
neglected.  Their  education  was  entirely  along 
domestic  lines.  The  mother  was  regarded  as  the  best 
teacher  for  her  daughters,  who  were  under  her  tutor- 
age from  birth  until  marriage.  They  were  taught 
"  to  fear  God  and  his  commandments,"  writing,  read- 
ing, and  particularly  domestic  duties.  In  the  train- 
ing of  her  daughter  the  Jewish  mother  carefully  in- 
culcated the  ideals  of  motherhood  as  a  holy  and  prec- 
ious heritage. 

In  Proverbs  31  there  appears  a  beautiful  descrip- 
tion of  a  worthy  woman  which  was  held  up  as  an  ideal 
to  be  aspired  to  by  every  Jewish  girl. 

"  Strength  and  dignity  are  her  clothing : 
And  she  laugheth  at  the  time  to  come. 
She  openeth  her  mouth  with  wisdom : 

1  Spiers:  School  System  of  the  Talmud,  page  51. 


30  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

And  the  law  of  kindness  is  in  her  tongue. 

She  looketh  well  to  the  ways  of  her  household, 

And  eateth  not  the  bread  of  idleness. 

Her  children  rise  up,  and  call  her  blessed: 

Her  husband  also,  and  he  praiseth  her  saying: 

Many  daughters  have  done  worthily, 

But  thou  excellest  them  alL 

Grace  is  deceitful,  and  beauty  is  vain: 

But  a  woman  that  feareth  Jehovah,  she  shall  be 
praised." 

(Proverbs  31:25-31.) 

THE  HINDUS 

The  common  characteristic  of  the  Egyptian  and 
Semitic  and  Chinese  religions,  in  so  far  as  they 
touched  the  people,  was  their  externalism.  But  the 
popular  religion  of  all  these  races  was  an  external 
system;  and,  in  the  case  of  all  save  the  Israelites, 
it  was  a  superstition.  The  spirituality  of  religion 
was  lost  in  ceremonial,  and  the  practical  ethics  which 
the  religion  might  have  yielded  were  choked  by  ex- 
ternal observances.^ 

When  we  pass  from  the  Egyptian  and  Semitic 
territories  to  the  home  of  the  Aryan  races,  we  feel 
like  travellers  ascending  from  monotonous  and  op- 
pressive plains  to  a  cool  and  invigorating  table-land.^ 
Our  studies  of  the  Aryan  or  Indo-European  races 
will  include  the  Hindus,  Medo-Persians,  Greeks,  and 
Romans. 

The  Hindu  Aryans  first  emigrated  into  the  Indus 
district   from   Central  Asia  probably  between  2000 

1  Laurie:   Pee-Christian   Education,   pages    165   and   166. 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  31 

and  1500  b.  c.  In  time  they  conquered  and  spread 
themselves  over  the  whole  of  Central  India. 

THEIR    LITERATURE 

To  understand  the  religious,  social,  and  intel- 
lectual tendencies  of  the  Hindus,  we  must  go  to  the 
repository  of  their  ideals  —  the  Sanskrit  literature. 
The  sacred  portion  of  this  ancient  literature  may  be 
divided  into  two  parts:  (1)  Sruti,  the  portion 
which  is  based  entirely  upon  direct  revelation;  (2) 
Smriti,  the  part  which  was  handed  down  by  tradition 
and  which  was  thought  to  have  been  revealed  to  hu- 
man writers. 

It  is  not  within  the  compass  of  our  book  to  describe 
the  Sanskrit  literature  in  detail,  but  it  is  our  purpose 
to  discuss  the  parts  which  are  essential  to  a  knowledge 
of  the  religious  and  educational  tendencies  of  the 
Hindus.  Our  discussion  will  be  based  upon  the  di- 
visions adopted  by  Professor  Williams  in  his  scholarly 
volume  "  Hinduism,"  under  four  departments ;  viz, — 

(1)  The  three  portions  of  the  Veda, —  Mantra, 
Brahmana,  and  Upanishad. 

(2)  The  Darsanas,  or  systems  of  philosophy. 

(3)  The  Dharmastras. 

(4)  The  Bhakti  sastras. 

The  principal  works  under  these  four  heads  are  the 
best  exponents  of  the  different  periods  of  development 
through  which  the  Hindu  religious  mind  has  passed 
and  which,  together,  make  up  Hinduism.^ 

The  Vedic  hymns  were  probably  composed  by  vari- 
ous  poets   between   the  years   1500  and   1000   b.  c. 

1  Prof.  Williams:  Hinduism,  page   16. 


32  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  ^ 

The  first  division  of  the  Veda,  called  the  Mantra  por- 
tion, contains  the  hymns,  prayers,  and  invocations 
which  were  used  in  the  worship  of  deities.  The  winds, 
fire,  sun,  and  water  were  deified  and  worshipped. 

The  second  division  is  called  the  Brahmana;  this 
elaborates  upon  the  conception  of  sacrifice  and  con- 
tains precepts  concerning  the  ritual.  The  Brahmana 
were  directories  to  be  used  by  the  priests,  Brahmans, 
in  the  proper  usage  of  the  Mantras  in  conducting 
worship  and  at  sacrifice. 

The  Upanishad,  or  third  division,  contains  the  mys- 
tical doctrines  which  were  appended  to  the  Brahmana 
about  600  B.  c.  The  doctrine  of  pantheism  can  be 
traced  to  the  earliest  Upanishads.  Out  of  the 
Upanishads  grew  the  six  Darsanas  or  schools  of  phil- 
osophy, sometimes  called  the  Six  Instruments  of  True 
Teaching,  or  Six  Demonstrations  of  Truth.  The 
six  schools  as  mentioned  and  arranged  by  Professor 
Williams  are  as  follows  : 

( 1 )  The  Nyaya,  founded  by  Gotama. 

(2)  The  Vaiseshika,  founded  by  Kauada. 

(3)  The  Saukhya,  founded  by  Kapila. 

(4)  The  Yoga,  founded  by  Pataujali. 

(5)  The  Mimausa,  founded  by  Jaimini. 

(6)  The    Vedanta,    founded    by    Badarayana    or 
Vyasa. 

These  schools  developed  distinctive  types  of  phil- 
osophy which  contributed  in  large  measure  to  the  in- 
tellectual and  religious  life  of  the  Hindus. 

The  chief  purpose  of  the  Brahmanistic  philosophy 
was  "  to  teach  men  to  abstain  from  action  of  every 
kind,  good  or  bad;  as  much  from  liking  as  from  dis- 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  33 

liking,  as  much  from  loving  as  from  hating,  and  even 
from  indifference.  Actions  are  the  fetters  of  the  em- 
bodied soul,  which  when  it  has  shaken,  it  will  lose  all 
sense  of  individual  personality  and  return  to  the  con- 
dition of  simple  soul.  This  constitutes  Brama  or 
true  knowledge ;  this  is  the  summwm  honum  of  Brah- 
manism;  this  is  the  only  real  bliss  —  the  loss  of  re- 
peated separate  existences  by  complete  absorption 
(sayiyya)  into  the  only  really  existing  Being,  who 
is  wholly  unfettered  by  action,  and  without  qualities 
of  any  kind  (nirguna)  and  called  Soccidananda,  be- 
cause he  is  pure  life  (with  nothing,  however,  to  live 
for),  pure  thought  (with  nothing  to  think  about), 
pure  joy  (with  nothing  to  rejoice  about)."  ^ 

The  code  of  Manu,  a  compilation  of  legalistic,  re- 
ligious, ethical,  and  philosophical  precepts,  comes 
next  in  importance  in  ancient  Hindu  literature.  The 
author  or  authors  of  the  code  are  unknown.  The 
earliest  version  may  be  assigned  to  the  fifth  century 
B.  c,  and  then  from  time  to  time  various  parts  seem 
to  have  been  added  by  the  Brahmans  who  claimed  the 
mythical  philosopher  Manu  to  be  the  author. 

The  code  determines  the  social  status.  By  divine 
appointment  there  are  four  classes  of  society  and  each 
caste  is  separated  from  the  other  by  insurmountable 
regulations  and  barriers.  In  the  scale  of  social 
precedence  the  Brahmans  took  first  rank,  and  the 
other  castes  came  in  the  following  order:  (1)  sol- 
diers, {9,)  agriculturists,  (3)  servants. 

Manu's  code  also  set  forth  the  doctrine  of  the 
transmigration  of  the  soul.  As  a  result  of  good  or 
bad  deeds,  words,  and  thoughts,  a  man's  soul  passed 
J  Prof.  Williams ;  Hinpuism,  page  52, 


34  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

through  the  highest,  middle,  or  lowest  stages  of  ex- 
istence. 

According  to  Manu,  women  were  considered  essen- 
tially inferior  to  man  and  they  were  in  every  respect 
his  subordinates. 

BUDDHISM 

About  500  B.  c.  Buddhism  arose  in  opposition  to 
the  caste  system  and  tyranny  of  Brahmanism.  The 
chief  reforms  which  Buddhism  introduced  may  be 
enumerated  as  follows : 

(1)  Equality  of  all  men. 

(2)  Sacrifices  of  atonement  are  of  no  avail  as  each 
individual  will  suffer  in  this  life  or  the  future  life  the 
consequences  of  his  own  deeds. 

(3)  Futility  of  prayers. 

(4)  The  goal  of  life  is  Nirvana;  that  is,  annihila- 
tion or  extinction  of  the  soul. 

In  reality  Buddhism  cannot  be  termed  a  religion ; 
it  is  rather  a  system  setting  forth  teachings  in  pa- 
tience, morals,  charity,  etc.  According  to  Hopkins, 
Buddha  believed  neither  in  God  nor  soul.^  However, 
Hindu  religious  ideals  in  their  essence  were  not  based 
on  externalism ;  when  the  devotees  of  ceremonialism 
sought  to  give  it  precedence,  then  the  reforms  of 
Buddhism  resulted. 

"  The  ethical  virtues  of  a  race  whose  deepest  con- 
victions were  pantheistic  and  whose  highest  hope  was 
personal  absorption  in  the  Universal,  were,  as  we 
might  expect,  temperance,  peaceableness,  patience, 
docility,  gentleness,  and  resignation.     These  virtues; 

1  Hopkins:    India   Old  and   New,   page   138. 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  S5 

are  naturally  accompanied  by  politeness,  respect  for 
parents  and  elders,  and  obedience  to  the  civil  and 
ecclesiastical  powers.  But  duty  in  our  commanding 
sense  of  the  word,  and  the  virtues  following  from  a 
strong  personality  that  controls  circumstances  and 
shapes  the  life  of  each  man,  were  not  to  be  ex- 
pected." ^ 

EDUCATIONAL.    PRINCIPLES 

In  pointing  out  the  purpose  of  Hindu  education, 
Wuttke,  in  contrasting  it  with  the  Chinese,  well  says : 
"  The  Chinese  educate  for  practical  life,  the  Indians 
for  the  ideal ;  those  for  earth,  these  for  heaven ;  those 
educate  their  sons  for  entering  the  world,  these  for 
going  out  of  it.  Those  educate  for  citizenship,  these 
for  the  priesthood ;  those  for  industrial  activity,  these 
for  knowledge." 

Among  the  earliest  schools  that  we  have  any  record 
of  were  schools  of  priests  organized  for  the  purpose 
of  preventing  of  falling  into  disuse  certain  ancient 
sacred  w^ords,  the  repetition  of  which  seemed  to  pro- 
cure the  favor  of  the  gods.  These  schools  developed 
elaborate  commentaries  which  served  as  text-books 
for  the  students.  According  to  Rhys-Davids,  "  The 
training  in  these  schools  was  a  curious  kind.  History 
in  one  sense,  and  science  too,  were  of  course  entirely 
unrepresented.  The  chief  weight  was  placed  on 
memory,  and  the  ingenuityof  commentators  was  much 
exercised  in  reconciling  the  diverse  statements  of  the 
ancient  texts  which  could  not  err,  and  in  finding 
mystic  reasons  to  explain  all  the  various  details  of 
the  sacrifice."  ^ 

1  Laurie:    Pre-Christiax    Educatiox,    page    176. 

2  Rhys-Davids:     Buddhism,  page  19. 


36  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

There  were  special  schools  conducted  by  the  Brah- 
mans  called  Parishads  where  special  instruction  was 
given  in  the  Vedas.  The  schools  of  philosophy  we 
have  already  referred  to.  The  young  Brahman 
studied  the  sacred  writings,  which  he  was  required  to 
learn  by  heart.  In  educational  and  practical  affairs 
the  Hindu  relied  largely  upon  his  memory.  The  edu- 
cational opportunities  were  open  to  all  castes,  and 
the  lower  castes  were  expected  to  attend  the  schools. 
On  the  whole  the  castes  below  the  Brahmans  were 
fairly  educated. 

THE  MEDO-PERSIANS 

"  The  first  great  wave  of  Aryan  emigration  which 
had  resulted  in  the  establishment  of  the  European  na- 
tions, had  been  followed  by  another  wave  which  first 
carried  the  Hindus  into  the  Punjab,  and  then  the 
Iranian  populations  into  the  vast  districts  of  Bact- 
ria  and  Ariana.  Mountains  and  deserts  checked  for 
a  time  their  further  progress,  but  at  length  a  number 
of  tribes  each  under  its  own  chiefs,  crept  along  the 
southern  shores  of  the  Caspian  to  the  northern  coast 
of  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  these  tribes  were  known  in 
later  history  as  the  Aryan  Medes  and  Persians."  ^ 

The  earliest  history  of  Persia  rests  in  obscurity. 
The  founding  of  the  Persian  Empire  by  Cyrus  dates 
from  558  b.  c.  By  active  and  strategic  methods 
Cyrus  extended  the  boundaries  of  his  empire  and  se- 
cured the  fealty  of  many  tribes  and  provinces.  In 
539  B.  c.  the  Persian  monarch  waged  a  successful 
campaign  against  his  formidable  rival  Babylon,  which 
he  succeeded  in  crushing.  This  great  victory  added 
1  Rawlinson:  Ancient  Monaechies,  Vol.  Ill,  page  300. 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  37 

about  250,000  square  miles  to  his  empire.  The 
overthrow  of  Babylon  also  marked  the  downfall  of 
the  old  Semitic  civilization  and  an  ancient  religious 
system.  Zorastrianism,  a  purer  and  nobler  system, 
the  Persian  state  religion,  took  its  place. 

At  his  death,  Cyrus  left  his  vast  dominion  to  his 
two  sons  Camb^^ses  and  Smerdis.  Cambyses  was 
jealous  of  his  brother,  and  he  had  him  secretly  put 
to  death.  Later,  about  525  b.  c.  he  entered  upon  the 
conquest  of  Egypt,  which  he  partially  subdued.  As 
Cambyses  was  returning  to  Persia  from  his  Egyptian 
campaign,  a  messenger  brought  him  the  news  that  a 
revolution  was  in  progress  among  the  Persians. 
Realizing  the  failure  and  his  inability  to  suppress  the 
rebellion  at  home,  he  committed  suicide. 

The  Magian  priests  who  bitterly  opposed  Zoras- 
trianism as  the  national  religion,  took  advantage  of 
Camb^^ses'  absence  and  fomented  open  rebellion. 
After  the  death  of  Cambyses  became  known,  they 
seized  the  reins  of  government,  destroyed  the  Zoras- 
trian  temples,  and  established  Magism  as  the  state  re- 
ligion. The  change  in  religion  was  satisfactory, 
particularly  to  the  Medes,  who  desired  a  more  ma- 
terial worship. 

Finally  dissatisfaction  arose  with  the  existing  rul- 
ing order  of  priesthood.  Darius,  the  son  of  Hys- 
taspes,  a  prince  of  the  royal  blood,  led  a  successful 
revolt  against  the  Magi,  who  were  driven  from  power 
and  large  numbers  of  them  were  slain.  Darius  ac- 
ceded to  the  throne  521  b.  c.  He  restored  the  Zoras- 
trian  religion  to  national  dignity  and  rebuilt  the 
temples.  He  reorganized  his  empire  and  established 
his  authority  over  an  immense  domain. 


38  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

Subsequently  the  empire  continued  to  grow  and  ex- 
pand until  the  great  ill-fated  expedition  of  Xerxes 
against  Greece  which  marked  the  waning  influence 
and  power  of  Persia.  The  empire  continued  to  be 
a  great  power  until  conquered  by  Alexander  in  331 
B.  c. 

RELIGIOUS    IDEALS 

The  primitive  Persian  religion  was  probably 
identical  with  the  early  Median  religious  concepts. 
The  religious  ideals  in  their  primitive  form  recognized 
the  worship  of  a  supreme  deity,  Ahura  Mazdah,  or 
Ormazd  (the  Lord  of  Wisdom),  and  the  presence  of 
an  evil  spirit,  Angra  Mainyu,  or  Ahriman  (destruc- 
tive spirit),  who  has  a  host  of  evil  spirits  (dseva)  to 
do  his  bidding  in  the  accomplishment  of  his  wicked  de- 
signs. Ahriman  wages  continued  warfare  with 
Ahura  but  in  the  end  evil  will  be  conquered. 

The  founder  of  this  religious  system  was  Zoroaster 
or  Zarathustra.  He  was  a  zealous  and  cultured  re- 
ligious reformer  who  had  a  high  conception  of  the 
monotheistic  type  of  religion.  His  conception  of 
the  existence  and  presence  of  evil  in  the  world  is 
shown  in  his  idea  of  the  existence  of  the  evil  spirit 
Ahriman,  and  the  ultimate  triumph  of  the  good. 
The  moral  concepts  of  the  Zoroastrian  were  simple 
and  elevating.  These  ideals  were  the  basic  principles 
of  Zoroastrianism  when  it  in  time  became  elevated  to 
the  dignity  of  a  state  religion. 

**  When  the  Medes,  in  establishing  a  wide-spread 
Empire,  chiefly  over  races  by  whom  Magism  had  been 
long  professed,  allowed  the  creed  of  their  subjects 
to  corrupt  their  own  belief,  accepted  the  Magi  for 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  39 

their  priests  and  formed  a  mixed  religious  system, — 
the  Persians  in  their  milder  country,  less  exposed  to 
corrupting  influences,  maintained  their  original  faith 
in  undiminished  purity  and  continued  faithful  to  their 
primitive  traditions.  The  political  dependence  of 
their  country  upon  Media  during  the  period  of  the 
Median  sway  made  no  difference  in  this  respect ;  for 
the  Medes  were  tolerant  and  did  not  seek  to  interfere 
with  the  creed  of  their  subjects."  ^ 

The  ancient  sacred  literature  of  Zorastrianism  is 
Zendavesta.  There  the  ideals  of  worship  are  en- 
joined which  comprise  prayer  and  thanksgiving  to 
Ormazd.  The  sacred  writings  opposed  idolatry. 
They  offered  up  various  sacrifices  upon  the  altar  and 
the  favorite  sacrifice  was  the  horse. 

The  religious  systems  of  the  Jews  and  Persians 
had  many  ideals  in  common,  and  a  close  religious  sym- 
pathy existed  between  them.  The  books  of  Ezra, 
Nehemiah,  and  Esther  portray  the  social  and  re- 
ligious conditions  which  obtained  among  the  two 
peoples. 

The  subsequent  history  of  Zorastrianism  shows 
corrupting  influences  of  Magism,  Babylonianism,  and 
other  forms  of  belief  which  existed  in  Asia.  In  time 
idolatry  developed,  and  the  Persians  worshipped  their 
gods  in  magnificent  temples  like  other  nations. 

The  inquiries  which  Aristotle  caused  to  be  made, 
towards  the  very  close  of  the  empire,  into  the  true 
nature  of  the  Persian  religion,  showed  him  Ormazd 
and  Ahriman  still  recognized  as  "  Principles,"  still 
standing  in  the  same  hostile  and  antithetical  atti- 
tude, one  towards  the  other,  which  they  occupied 
iRawlinson:    Ancient    Monarchies,    Vol.    Ill,    page    347. 


40  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

when  the  first  Forgord  of  the  Vendidad  was  written, 
long  anterior  to  the  rise  of  the  Persian  Power."  -^ 

EDUCATIONAL  CONCEPTIONS 

The  Persians  were  very  careful  and  strict  in  the 
training-  of  their  sons.  The  boy  for  the  first  five 
years  of  his  life  was  under  the  care  of  women.  At 
the  age  of  seven  more  rigid  training  began.  At  the 
age  of  fifteen  he  was  supposed  to  be  an  expert  horse- 
man, hunter,  capable  of  enduring  all  kinds  of  hard- 
ships, and  effective  in  the  use  of  the  javelin  and  bow. 
He  was  also  taught  a  useful  knowledge  of  agriculture, 
and  the  construction  of  instruments  of  war.  From 
the  age  of  fifteen  until  fifty  he  was  subject  to  the  mili- 
tary service  of  his  country.  The  higher  classes  were 
selected  for  service  in  the  king's  body-guard  and  were 
stationed  at  the  capital. 

When  the  Persians  adhered  closely  to  these  edu- 
cational conceptions,  their  sons  were  trained  into 
temperate  habits.  The  acme  of  their  moral  training 
consisted  in  a  careful  observance  of  truth.  A  liar 
was  despised.  The  Persian  youth  learned  additional 
moral  ideals  and  religious  concepts  in  his  study  of 
sacred  poems  wherein  the  exploits  of  gods  and  heroes 
were  set  forth.  His  instructor  recited  these  poems 
in  his  presence,  and  he  was  expected  to  repeat  them 
from  memory.  In  general  his  education  extended 
throughout  the  first  twenty  years  of  his  life. 

The  Persians  were  the  preeminent  Asiatic  people 
of  their  time.  The  simple  Zorastrian  faith  inspired 
them  to  high  and  noble  conceptions  and  contributed 
in  large  measure  to  the  strong  national  feeling  which 

iRawlinson:     Ancient  Monarchies,  Vol.  Ill,  page  363. 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  41 

existed.  Among  the  Persians  there  existed  free 
spirit  and  unhampered  personality.  There  were  cer- 
tain grades  of  society  and  certain  rules  which  were 
to  be  fulfilled  in  the  relation  of  one  rank  to  another 
which  obtained  among  them,  but  there  was  lacking 
the  depressing  effect  upon  personality,  and  the  con- 
ditions of  life  in  general,  which  resulted  from  the 
caste  plan  of  India.  "  With  a  sense  of  personality 
there  comes  into  existence  freedom  and  many  conse- 
quent virtues.  The  Persian  thus  seems  to  bridge  the 
gulf  between  the  Oriental  and  the  European.  And 
yet  he  was  an  Oriental."  ^ 

THE  HELLENIC  PEOPLE 

The  early  history  of  Greece  marks  the  beginning 
of  European  intellectual  and  political  life.  In  the 
political  life  of  their  city-states  there  was  shown  a 
spirit  of  civic  and  personal  freedom  which  was,  per- 
haps, never  dreamed  of  by  the  ancient  Egyptians, 
Chinese,  Semites,  Hindus,  and  Persians.  Their  in- 
tellectual life  was  marked  by  clarity  of  thought,  and 
through  it  their  feelings  and  sympathies  were  beau- 
tifully expressed. 

Their  history  is  no  less  interesting,  but  a  detailed 
account  is  beyond  the  compass  of  our  text-book, 
hence  general  statements  must  suffice.  Five  epochs 
may  be  mentioned. 

(1)  The  prehistoric  to  the  close  of  the  great  mi- 
grations. 

(2)  The  Greek  states  to  the  close  of  the  Persian 
Invasion  479  b.  c. 

1  Laurie:   Pee -Christian    Education,   page   206. 


42  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

(3)  The  Athenian  Supremacy  478-431,  and  the 
Peloponnesian  War  431-404,  to  the  Theban  Su- 
premacy 362  B.  c. 

(4)  Ascending  of  Philip  of  Macedon  over  Greece 
338  B.  c,  and  the  reign  of  Alexander  the  Great 
323  B.  c. 

(5)  Becomes  a  Roman  province  146  b.  c. 

ART,    MUSIC,    AND    POETRY 

The  constituent  elements  of  Hellenic  education 
were  art,  music,  and  poetry.  The  ideal  was  to  have 
all  citizens  educated.  In  other  words  art,  literature, 
and  music  were  created  for  the  public.  The  orators 
addressed  the  great  national  assembly,  which  was 
also  attended  by  citizens  in  large  numbers.  When 
tragedies  and  comedies  were  presented  at  Athens, 
the  whole  of  Hellas  was  usually  represented  by  citi- 
zens drawn  thither  to  see  the  acting.  Various  fes- 
tive occasions  which  brought  together  large  numbers 
of  people  were  the  times  when  the  poet  recited  his 
poems.  The  orator  and  poet  depicted  those  ideals 
which  would  inspire  deeper  love  for  their  country  and 
vividly  unfolded  the  glories  of  their  beloved  Greece. 

The  ancient  Hellene  was  an  ardent  lover  of  music. 
The  early  tribal  music  was  very  primitive,  but  as  the 
national  spirit  developed,  music  of  a  higher  and 
nobler  type  resulted.  Music  was  believed  to  have 
a  desirable  effect  on  the  body,  soul,  and  mind.  A 
certain  branch  of  the  Pythagorean  school  advocated 
that  the  sweet  strains  of  the  harp  would  restore 
peace  to  the  disturbed  soul. 

Great  stress  was  laid  upon  the  educative  value  of 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  43 

art.  The  impersonal  side  of  art  was  particularly 
emphasized  inasmuch  as  it  was  the  national  value 
that  was  to  be  enhanced.  The  highest  degree  of 
perfection  was  sought  for  in  every  statue  or  frieze 
which  was  erected,  and  which  was  invariably  used  to 
adorn  a  public  temple  or  gymnasium.  The  Hellenic 
theory  upheld  the  ideal  that  beautiful  art  developed 
beautiful  characters  in  those  who  came  in  contact 
with  it.  "  To  serve  this  educational  end,  the  Hellenes 
expected  every  statue  and  painting,  as  well  as  every 
poem  and  tune,  to  have  ^^o?,  that  is,  according  to 
Aristotle's  definition,  to  be  such  that  its  moral  pur- 
pose was  manifest  to  the  average  man."  ^ 

THE    SCHOOLS 

The  ideals  of  the  schools  aimed  to  produce  the 
highest  type  of  citizenship.  Each  boy  was  taught 
reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  and  the  national  litera- 
ture. The  sons  of  the  wealthy  classes,  in  addition, 
studied  rhetoric  and  philosophy.  The  Hellenic 
theory  of  the  ideal  citizen  aimed  not  only  to  give  the 
highest  training  possible  to  the  mind  and  imagina- 
tion, but  demanded  equal  training  for  the  perfection 
of  the  body.  All  games,  hardships,  and  exercises  of 
the  gymnasium  were  utilized  to  develop  the  body. 
The  chief  object  of  this  physical  training  was  to  de- 
velop in  each  youth  character,  courage,  determina- 
tion, and  energy. 

The  ideal  of  the  Hellenic  schools  first  of  all  was  to 
teach   character.     The   citizens   demanded   that   the 
school-master  be  a  man  of  the  most  exemplar}^  char- 
1  Freeman:  Schools  of  Hellas,  page  244. 


U  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

acter.  They  held  the  teacher  responsible  for  any 
breach  of  conduct  or  misdemeanor  on  the  part  of  his 
pupils. 

RELIGIOUS    EDUCATION 

The  religious  system  of  the  Greeks  was  a  complex 
one.  It  consisted  in  the  worship  of  innumerable  di- 
vinities. The  stories  and  myths  of  their  deities  were 
enshrined  in  the  epics  of  the  race.  The  youth  made 
a  careful  study  of  these  books,  which  he  was  required 
to  commit  to  memory.  In  time  he  took  part  in  the 
various  religious  festivals  and  dances,  which  in- 
creased his  knowledge  of  sacred  things  and  intensi- 
fied his  faith  in  the  gods.  The  two  great  poets, 
Homer  and  Hesiod,  who  embodied  in  their  works  the 
myths  of  the  gods,  were  considered  to  have  written 
with  special  authority,  and  in  time  their  poems  were 
looked  upon  as  divinely  inspired ;  Homer  particularly 
became  the  Bible  of  the  Hellenic  people.  The  school- 
masters, orators,  and  the  people  in  general  drew  les- 
sons in  morals  from  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey. 

However,  later  many  of  the  philosophers  revolted 
against  the  low  mythical  ideals  embodied  in  the  epics. 
Xenophanes  said,  "  Homer  and  Hesiod  ascribed  to 
the  gods  all  that  is  considered  disgraceful  among 
men."  ^  Eventually  public  opinion  lost  its  faith  in 
the  old  myths,  but  belief  in  the  old  deities  continued. 
In  order  that  the  people  might  not  lose  sight  of  the 
ideal,  namely,  the  attainment  of  perfect  character, 
philosophers  like  Plato  sought  to  personify  those 
ethical  ideals  which  should  guide  the  people.  Thus 
Plato  in  his  idealization  of  Socrates  seeks  to  present 

1  Freeman:  Schools  of  Hellas,  page  229. 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  45 

those  ethical  concepts  which  shall  help  the  Hellenic 
people  to  the  attainment  of  perfect  character. 

The  Greek  conception  of  life  in  all  its  phases  was 
based  upon  the  aesthetic.  Their  theory,  as  men- 
tioned, was  to  produce  the  ideal  man.  The  ideal  of 
the  beautiful  towered  above  all  other  vital  considera- 
tions of  life,  and  this  may  be  applied  as  the  real 
cause  for  the  ultimate  failure  of  the  Greek  system. 
The  theory  was  not  a  total  failure,  but  it  represents 
only  one  side  of  human  endeavor.  A  one-sided  sys- 
tem in  education,  morals,  or  religion  cannot  possibly 
exist  permanently. 

THE  ROMANS 

In  making  a  brief  study  of  religious  education 
from  the  Roman  viewpoint,  a  general  survey  of 
Roman  history  will  be  in  order.  Rome  was  founded 
753  B.  c.  From  509  to  265  b.  c.  was  the  period  of 
internal  development ;  the  establishment  of  the  re- 
public and  Roman  supremacy  in  Ital}',  265-146 
B.  c,  marked  the  extension  of  her  power  in  the  West 
and  East.  146-48  b.  c.  was  the  period  of  revolu- 
tion —  the  dictatorship  of  Julius  C.Tsar.  In  30 
b.  c.  Caesar  Augustus  became  emperor  and  reigned 
until  14  A.  D.  The  empire  continued  until  476  a.  d. 
During  this  period,  306-337  a.  d.,  reigned  Constan- 
tine  the  Great,  who  recognized  Christianity  as  the 
religion  of  the  empire. 

RELIGION    and    EDUCATION 

In  the  early  history  the  religious  duties  which 
were  to  be  performed  were  marked  by  simplicity. 
Certain  traditional  forms,  which  each  father  taught 


46  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

his  son,  were  to  be  fulfilled  in  order  to  gain  the  favor 
and  blessing  of  the  gods.  When  Rome  extended  her 
power  over  the  East,  new  gods  were  added  to  her 
system  and  beautiful  temples  were  erected  and  dedi- 
cated to  their  worship  in  the  great  capital  city. 
Many  religious  festivals  were  inaugurated  with  elab- 
orate ceremonies  in  honor  of  the  deities.  Around 
each  household  and  estate,  in  time,  innumerable  dei- 
ties were  gathered,  which  were  faithfully  worshipped 
in  the  hope  of  obtaining  the  richest  divine  favors. 

Thus  the  Roman  children  were  taught  their  reli- 
gious ideals  in  their  home  life.  They  accepted  and 
continued  the  religious  life  of  their  fathers.  The 
highest  moral  instruction  which  obtained  was  the 
traditional  precept  of  the  household. 

However,  about  200  b.  c.  marks  the  influx  of 
Greek  philosophy  in  Rome,  which  had  a  tremendous 
effect  in  the  religious  and  educational  ideals  of  the 
time.  In  Rome,  as  in  Greece,  the  ideal  of  education 
was  to  develop  the  highest  order  of  citizenship  in 
order  that  each  citizen  might  be  trained  to  render 
the  best  possible  service  to  the  state.  In  the  earlier 
days  of  Rome,  as  in  Greece  when  culture  was  at  its 
zenith,  the  moral  training  of  the  pupil  was  the  main 
principle  kept  in  view. 

When  Hellenic  educational  ideals  gained  a  perma- 
nent foothold  in  Rome,  Greek  teachers  in  large  num- 
bers were  found  among  the  Romans.  The  Greeks 
taught  particularly  rhetoric  and  philosophy.  The 
Greek  schools  of  philosophy  taught  particularly  that 
phase  which  has  to  do  with  the  conduct  of  life.  In 
time,  when  a  Roman  desired  information  relative  to 
right  and  wrong,  he  did  not  consult  the  priest  of  his 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  47 

religion,  but  he  went  to  some  philosopher  for  advice. 
In  the  homes  of  many  wealthy  Romans,  Greek  phil- 
osophers were  found  who  were  expected  to  teach  high 
moral  principles  to  the  children. 

As  the  old  Roman  conception  of  education  passed 
away,  the  Hellenic  took  its  place,  but  the  cultured 
Roman  at  his  best  manifested  the  prosaic  and  prac- 
tical side  of  life.  Or  as  Laurie  says,  "  As  can  easily 
be  understood  in  the  case  of  a  nation  whose  genius 
was  so  essentially  practical,  whose  life  was  so  wholly 
a  civil  life,  the  chief  legacy  of  thought  which  they 
bequeathed  to  humanity  was  their  moral  energy  and 
their  jurisprudence.  The  latter  we  still  study  as  the 
basis  of  all  modern  law;  and  this  it  was  which,  dur- 
ing a  long  and  critical  period,  continued  with  the 
influence  of  the  Church  to  hold  the  civilization  of 
Europe  together,  and  finally  to  re-create  it."  ^ 

THE  CATECHETICAL  SCHOOLS 

It  seems  that  the  incipiency  of  the  catechetical 
schools  may  be  traced  to  the  days  of  the  Apostles. 
It  was  the  custom  of  the  Apostles  to  gather  groups 
of  people  about  them  for  instruction.  That  a  sim- 
ple method  of  catechetics  obtained  at  this  time  is 
evidenced  b}^  Hebrews  5:  12,  "For  when  b}^  reason 
of  the  time  ye  ought  to  be  teachers,  ye  have  need 
again  that  some  one  teach  you  the  rudiments  of  the 
first  principles  of  the  oracles  of  God ;  and  are  become 
such  as  have  need  of  milk,  and  not  of  solid  food."  ^ 

1  I^aurie:    Pre-Christian    Educatiox,    page    32L 

2  The  term  catechetics  according  to  Thayer  is  derived  from 
the  Greek  verb  Kar-nx^^^  which  means:  (1)  to  somid  to- 
wards, sound  down  upon,  resound;  (2)  to  teach  orally,  to 
instruct. 

References:     Cf.  Acts  21:21,  24;  Rom.  2:18;  I  Cor.  14:19. 


48  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

This  method  of  instruction  was  generally  used  in 
the  primitive  Christian  church.  According  to 
"  The  Teaching  of  the  Twelve  Apostles,"  which  is  a 
manual  devoted  in  part  to  Christian  instruction  and 
which  was  largely  used  in  the  early  church,  men 
were  to  be  thoroughly  instructed  in  the  essentials  of 
Christian  faith  before  they  were  to  be  admitted  to 
baptism. 

Out  of  this  method  of  instruction  grew  the  cate- 
chetical schools  of  post-Apostolic  times.  The  most 
celebrated  of  all  was  the  Christian  school  at  Alex- 
andria. Here  were  taught  the  elementary  principles 
of  Christianity,  and  theology  in  its  higher  form. 
One  of  its  famous  teachers  was  the  learned  and 
saintly  Clement.  Another  famous  catechist  was 
Cyril  of  Jerusalem.  He  lectured  at  Jerusalem  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  the  first  Christian  emperor,  Con- 
stantine.  His  lectures  are  clear,  methodical,  full  of 
Christian  truth  and  encouragement. 

CLASSES    AND    INSTRUCTION 

According  to  Bingham  there  were  four  classes  of 
catechumens.^ 

(1)  The  c^w  ©ov/xevoi,  or  catechumens  instructed 
privately  without  the  church. 

(2)  The  aKpowfievoL,  audientes,  or  hearers,  who 
were  so  called  from  their  being  admitted  to  hear  ser- 
mons and  the  Scriptures  read  in  the  church. 

(3)  The  yowKXivovT€<s,  or  genu  flee  tentes,  the  kneel- 

1  Bingham :     Antiquities  Christian  Church,  Vol.   I,  Book 
X,  pages  434-435. 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  49 

crs  or  prostrators.     After  certain  prayers  they  al- 
ways received  inspiration  of  hands,  kneehng. 

(4)  The  PaTTTL^ofxevoi,  or  competentes  and  electiy 
who  were  so  called  from  their  petitioning  the  bishop 
for  the  sacrament  of  baptism. 

According  to  the  Apostolic  constitutions  their  in- 
struction consisted  in  the  following  subjects.  Be- 
fore the  sacrament  of  baptism  could  be  administered, 
the  catechumens  must  be  taught  the  knowledge  of 
God,  of  Christ,  and  the  Holy  Spirit.  They  learned 
the  order  of  creation  of  the  world,  and  series  of 
divine  providence,  and  the  different  sorts  of  legisla- 
tion. They  were  taught  to  know  why  man  was  made 
and  to  understand  their  own  nature.  They  were 
informed  how  God  punished  the  wicked  and  rewarded 
his  saints.  Then  followed  a  course  of  study  in  the 
doctrines  of  Christ's  incarnation,  his  passion,  his 
resurrection,  and  assumption.  The  catechumens 
were  allowed  to  read  the  moral  and  historical  books 
of  the  Scripture.  The  chief  use  of  the  apocryphal 
books  was  to  impress  the  moral  precepts  on  their 
minds.  The  competentes  learned  the  Creed,  and  be- 
fore their  baptism  they  were  permitted  to  learn  the 
Lord's  Prayer. 

Thus  these  schools  sought  to  educate  the  indi- 
vidual to  be  a  worthy  and  useful  member  in  the 
church  of  Jesus  Christ.  Or  as  Dr.  Richard  has  well 
said,  "  The  underlying  principle  was  that  proper 
Christian  instruction  is  the  foundation  of  Christian 
character."  ^ 

1  Dr.   J.  W.   Richard:     Lectures  on   Catechetics,  page   10. 


CHAPTER  III 

HISTORY  OF  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION: 
THE  MIDDLE  PERIOD 

Relation  of  Christianity/  to  Roman  Education  — 
The  Growth  of  Christianity  —  The  Transient  Period 
of  Education  500-600  —  The  Medieval  Period 
500-1100  —  The  Benedictine  Schools  —  The  Cathe- 
dral Schools  —  The  Condition  of  Culture  —  The 
Reforms  of  Charlemagne  —  Alcuin  and  the  Palace 
School  —  Rise  of  Scholasticism  —  Rise  of  the  Uni- 
versities: contributing  causes  —  The  Early  Univer- 
sities: privileges,  discipline,  and  studies  —  P  re- 
Reformation  Movements:  the  Waldenses;  John 
Wyclif:  132^-1384.;  John  Huss:  1369-1^15;  Je- 
rome Savonarola:  lJf.52-H98  —  The  Revival  of 
Learning  —  The  Renaissance  in  Italy  and  Germany 
—  Brethren  of  the  Common  Life  —  John  Wessel  — 
Rudolph  Agricola  —  John  Reuchli/n  —  Erasmus. 

RELATION  OF  qHRISTIANITY  TO  ROMAN 
EDUCATION 

What  relation  the  Christian  Church  should  bear 
to  the  Roman  schools  was  a  question  which  did  not 
provoke  much  discussion  in  the  incipient  days  of 
Christianity.  The  question  became  a  momentous 
one  when  Christianity  gathered  to  its  teachings  con- 
verts from  the  cultured  classes. 

There  was  a  recognition  at  this  time  that  the 
50 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  51 

Christian  child  would  be  taught  religious  ideas  in 
the  Roman  schools  which  were  contrary  to  the  ideas 
taught  him  at  home.  The  Roman  mythology  was 
antipodal  to  Christian  thought  and  life.  However, 
the  viewpoint  of  the  primitive  church  came  to  be 
that  if  pagan  literature  was  looked  upon  in  its  true 
status,  and  if  studied  in  the  Roman  schools,  it  would 
not  be  likely  to  lead  to  apostasy. 

Eventually,  the  leaders  of  the  primitive  church 
came  to  realize  the  informational  and  cultural  value 
which  was  to  be  derived  from  the  study  of  Greek  and 
Roman  literature  and  philosophy.  In  the  Christian 
school  at  Alexandria  the  ideals  of  the  Cross  and 
Plato,  Homer  and  Virgil  were  also  taught. 

THE    GROWTH   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

By  the  action  of  Constantine  in  323  Christianity 
became  the  state  religion  of  the  Roman  Empire. 
However,  paganism  did  not  immediately  vanish. 
When  Justinian  acceded  to  the  throne  (527-565), 
Christianity  was  thoroughly  established  as  the  na- 
tional religion.  The  Christian  faith  had  also  been 
extended  to  Abyssinia,  Armenia,  Persia,  India,  and 
to  the  tribes  of  the  Syrian  and  Libyan  deserts. 

THE    TRANSIENT    PERIOD    OF    EDUCATION,    500-600 

Coincident  with  the  growth  of  the  church  of  this 
period  is  the  decline  of  the  old  Roman  civil  schools. 
The  most  important  of  these  schools  were  found  in 
Italy,  Spain,  and  Roman  Gaul.  By  the  sixth  cen- 
tury they  had  passed  out  of  existence.  Their  de- 
cline was  due  to  two  causes:  (1)  many  of  the  higher 
classes  who  had  formerly  supported  and  encouraged 


52  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

the  schools  became  indifferent  to  education  and 
ceased  to  patronize  them;  (2)  the  schools  had  failed 
to  keep  in  touch  with  the  ideals  of  the  day  which  had 
changed  from  pagan  to  Christian. 

THE  MEDIEVAL  PERIOD,  500-1100 

This  epoch  in  the  history  of  religious  pedagogy 
was  marked  by  two  kinds  of  schools:  (1)  the  monas- 
tic, (2)  the  cathedral.  In  404  John  Cassian,  a 
monk,  established  at  Marseilles  a  monastery  which 
was  also  used  as  a  school.  Cassian,  in  reality,  was 
the  pioneer  of  monastic  education. 

THE  BENEDICTINE  SCHOOLS 

However,  the  real  impulse  was  given  to  monastic 
education  by  St.  Benedict.  He  was  born  at  Nursia 
in  480.  In  528  he  established  a  monastery  near 
Naples.  He  founded  the  order  of  Benedictines,  who 
established  monasteries  over  Europe.  St.  Benedict 
realized  the  necessity  of  Christian  instruction,  and 
each  monastery  became  a  school.  St.  Benedict's 
conception  of  monastic  life  was  a  threefold  one: 
(1)  a  religious  retreat;  (2)  labor  adaptable  to  the 
life,  such  as  agriculture,  copying  of  sacred  manu- 
scripts;  (3)  to  instruct  the  young. 

At  first  the  monastic  schools  were  established  to 
teach  those  who  expected  to  devote  their  life  to  the 
service  of  the  Church.  Later,  instruction  was  given 
to  those  who  expected  to  follow  the  secular  callings 
of  life. 

The  course  of  study  was  as  follows :  reading,  writ- 
ing, a  little  arithmetic,  and  chanting.  The  Latin 
Psalter  was   the  text  in   reading.     The  pupil   com- 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  63 

mitted  tlie  Psalms  to  memory  without  understanding 
their  meaning.  The  music  which  was  taught  was  to 
enable  the  pupil  to  chant  effectively  in  the  worship 
of  the  church.  More  advanced  instruction  was 
given  those  who  expected  to  follow  the  secular  voca- 
tions. An  elementary  course  of  ethics  was  also 
given. 

On  the  whole  the  religious  instruction  of  these 
schools  was  of  a  very  meagre  nature,  for  even  the 
teachings  of  religious  ideals  was  contrary  to  the 
cenobite  life  in  its  final  analysis.  Concerning  the 
monk,  Newman  writes,  "  He  cared  little  for  knowl- 
edge, even  theological,  or  for  success,  even  though 
it  was  religious.  It  is  the  character  of  such  a  man 
to  be  contented,  resigned,  patient,  and  incurious ;  to 
create  or  originate  nothing;  to  live  by  tradition."  ^ 
And  yet  withal  the  Benedictine  schools  proved  to  be 
a  blessing  to  Europe  as  they  kept  alive  the  spark  of 
Christian  instruction. 

THE  CATHEDRAL  SCHOOLS 

About  the  time  the  Benedictine  schools  were 
founded,  the  cathedral  or  episcopal  schools  were  es- 
tablished. They  were  similar  to  the  primitive  Chris- 
tian catechetical  schools  and  were  probably  an  out- 
growth of  this  early  system  of  Christian  education. 
The  cathedral  schools  were  established  primarily  as 
theological  seminaries  to  provide  priests  for  the 
church.  Their  course  of  study  embraced  the  Triv- 
ium  and  Quadrivium,  and  particular  attention  was 
given  to  theology.  The  Benedictine  monks  were  at 
the  head  of  many  of  these  schools. 
1  Historical  Sketches,  Vol.  II,  page  453. 


54.  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

For  a  time  the  cathedral  schools  continued  as 
vigorous  centers  of  learning,  but  by  700  interest  in 
them  had  declined,  and  on  the  whole  the  schools  had 
retrograded.  About  750  Chrodegang,  Bishop  of 
Metz,  became  alarmed  at  the  condition  of  the 
schools.  He  made  every  effort  to  revive  interest  in 
them,  but  his  work  of  reformation  and  reorganization 
met  with  only  partial  success.  The  work  of  refor- 
mation was  to  be  done  by  Charlemagne. 

THE  CONDITION  OF  CULTURE 

Previous  to  the  time,  and  in  the  early  years,  of 
Charlemagne's  reign,  culture,  on  the  whole,  was  at 
a  low  ebb  throughout  Europe.  For  this  period  Mr. 
Williams  sums  up  the  condition  of  learning  as  fol- 
lows :  "  Learning  pertained  chiefly  to  the  clergy 
and  was  by  no  means  universal  even  among  them. 
The  peasantry  as  a  class  were  taught  only  the  dog- 
mas of  the  church.  .  .  .  Nobles  and  princes,  at  the 
best,  learned  only  the  elements  of  knowledge,  together 
with  church  doctrines  and  singing,  to  which  was 
added  in  the  case  of  princes  some  elementary  knowl- 
edge of  whatever  laws  then  existed.  Even  the  conse- 
crated language,  the  Latin,  had  degenerated  and  be- 
come barbarized."  ^ 

THE  REFORMS  OF  CHARLEMAGNE 

Charlemagne  was  bom  in  742,  and  after  the  death 
of  his  father,  Pepin,  he  became  king  of  the  Franks 
in  768.  His  younger  brother  Carloman  shared  the 
rule  of  the  kingdom  with  him,  but  after  his  brother's 

1  Williams;    Histqiiy  or  Mkdiaevai*  JlpiprcATiOlfi  pages  558, 
559, 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  65 

(leath  in  771,  Charlemagne  became  sole  ruler.  He 
was  crowned  emperor  of  the  Romans  in  800  and  died 
in  814  after  a  beneficent  and  prosperous  reign  of 
forty- six  years. 

Charlemagne  realized  the  decadent  condition  of 
learning  in  the  schools  of  his  kingdom,  and  he  deter- 
mined to  put  into  operation  a  series  of  reforms  in 
order  to  revive  the  literary  spirit.  His  reforms  re- 
quired a  reorganization  of  the  schools,  a  more  thor- 
oughly educated  clergy,  and  the  education  of  his 
subjects  by  the  active  and  zealous  cooperation  of 
the  church. 

In  order  that  his  reforms  might  be  carried  out  to 
a  successful  issue,  Charlemagne  in  781  invited  the 
celebrated  English  ecclesiastical  scholar  and  teacher, 
Alcuin,  to  supervise  the  educational  work  of  his 
kingdom.  Alcuin  w^as  master  of  the  school  at  York 
which  was  one  of  the  very  few  bright  centers  of 
learning  at  this  time. 

ALCUIN  AND  THE  PALACE  SCHOOL 

For  some  time  previous  to  the  invitation  extended 
by  Charlemagne  to  Alcuin,  a  court  school  existed  at 
his  palace  at  Aachen.  In  782,  when  Alcuin  came  to 
his  court,  Charlemagne  made  him  master  of  the  pal- 
ace school.  In  the  court  school  Alcuin  had  as  his 
pupils  the  great  king  himself,  the  queen,  their  chil- 
dren, and  the  courtiers.  Among  the  most  earnest 
of  his  students  was  the  king,  w^ho  desired  to  know 
more  about  the  many  perplexing  problems  which 
were  before  him.  Among  the  courses  of  study  which 
Alcuin  taught  were  grammar,  astronomy,  arithmetic, 
the  writings  of  the  fathers,  and  theology. 


56  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

After  the  palace  school  was  thoroughly  reorgan- 
ized, Charlemagne  turned  his  attention  to  the  fur- 
therance of  his  plans  to  give  Christian  instruction 
to  his  people.  Following  Alcuin's  counsel,  Charle- 
magne in  787  issued  his  famous  proclamation  on 
education.  It  seems  to  have  been  directed  to  the 
abbots  of  the  different  monasteries.  So  important 
a  document  is  it  that  a  quotation  from  it  is  in 
order. 

"  We  exhort  you,  therefore,  not  only  not  to  neglect 
the  study  of  letters,  but  to  apply  yourselves  thereto 
with  perseverance  and  with  that  humility  which  is 
well  pleasing  to  God;  so  that  you  may  be  able  to 
penetrate  with  greater  ease  and  certainty  the  mys- 
teries of  the  Holy  Scriptures.  For  as  these  con- 
tain images,  tropes,  and  similar  figures,  it  is  impos- 
sible to  doubt  that  the  reader  will  arrive  far  more 
readily  at  the  spiritual  sense  according  as  he  is  the 
better  instructed  in  learning.  Let  there,  therefore, 
be  chosen  for  this  work  men  who  are  both  able  and 
willing  to  learn,  and  also  desirous  of  instructing 
others;  and  let  them  apply  themselves  to  the  work 
with  the  zeal  with  which  we  recommend  it  to  them."  ^ 

In  789  the  king  issued  a  proclamation  to  the  effect 
that  the  clergy  were  to  live  better  moral  lives  and 
every  abbey  was  to  have  its  school.  In  this  stu- 
pendous task  of  reformation  Alcuin  was  aided  by 
royal  patronage,  and  his  efforts  were  rewarded  by 
marked  success.  Moreover,  the  old  schools  were  re- 
vived and  reorganized  and  new  ones  likewise  estab- 
lished.    In  the  different  parishes,  village  schools  were 

iMullinger:    The    Schools   of   Charles   the    Great,   pages 
98  and  99. 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  57 

established  which  were  presided  over  and  taught  by 
the  parish  priests. 

After  the  death  of  Charlemagne  the  revival  in  cul- 
ture which  he  instituted  lingered  about  a  half  cen- 
tury and  then  ceased.  A  period  of  retrogression 
followed,  during  the  tenth  and  eleventh  centuries, 
which  extinguished  large  numbers  of  schools.  Igno- 
rance was  common  to  laity  and  clergy  alike.  How- 
ever, a  few  of  the  more  important  schools  and  monas- 
teries, such  as  those  of  Paris,  Rheims,  Orleans,  etc., 
continued  to  give  instruction,  which  was  mostly  of  a 
religious  nature. 

RISE  OF  SCHOLASTICISM 

Moreover,  the  influence  given  to  learning  by 
Charlemagne  and  Alcuin  was  not  entirely  extin- 
guished. Alcuin's  influence  may  be  traced  in  a  gen- 
eral way  through  the  lives  of  his  pupils  both  imme- 
diate and  remote.  After  Alcuin's  death  the  palace 
school  had  a  fluctuating  existence.  In  845  the  king, 
Charles  the  Bold,  appointed  John  Scotus  Erigena 
the  master  of  the  palace  school.  He  was  one  of  the 
earliest  teachers  and  philosophers  of  scholasticism, 
which  was  introduced  into  the  ecclesiastical  schools. 
According  to  Ueberweg,  "  Scholasticism  was  the  re- 
production of  ancient  philosophy  under  the  control 
of  ecclesiastical  doctrine,  with  an  accommodation,  in 
cases  of  discrepancy  between  them,  of  the  former  to 
the  latter."  ^ 

Among  the  greatest  philosophers  and  teachers  of 
scholasticism  of  this  period  were  Anselm  of  Canter- 
bury (1033-1109),  who  developed  the  Christological 
1  Ueberweg:     History   of  Philosophy,   Vol.   I,  page   355. 


58  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

theory  of  satisfaction  in  his  celebrated  work,  "  Cur 
Deus  Homo?"  and  Abelard  (1079-1142),  who 
taught  principally  in  the  Cathedral  School  at  Paris. 
The  great  work  of  the  schoolmen  consisted  in  the  sys- 
tematization  of  the  traditional  doctrines  and  theology 
of  the  church. 

RISE  OF  THE  UNIVERSITIES 

The  revival  of  learning  which  took  place  in  the 
twelfth  century  resulted  in  the  rise  of  the  universi- 
ties of  Europe. 

CONTRIBUTING    CAUSES 

There  were  several  causes  which  contributed  to  the 
establishment  of  the  universities,  which  may  be  briefly 
enumerated  as  follows : 

(1)  The  Rise  of  Chivalry.  Chivalry  owed  its 
origin  to  an  early  Germanic  custom  which  became  dur- 
ing this  period  a  new  educational  force  in  the  way 
that  the  ideals  of  knighthood  were  emphasized.  The 
chivalrous  knight  was  taught  the  principles  of 
loyalty,  bravery,  justice;  to  honor  and  respect 
womanhood,  to  defend  the  weak  and  oppressed. 
These  ideals  were  taught  in  the  special  schools  which 
sprang  up  in  the  castles  of  the  great  feudal  lords. 
Chivalry,  therefore,  placed  a  new  phase  on  the  social 
life  of  the  period,  emphasized  individual  responsi- 
bility, and  in  time  developed  a  broader  humanitarian 
spirit  in  Christianity.  Chivalry  became  a  new  edu- 
cational force  which  resulted  in  producing  a  higher 
ethical  condition. 

(S)  The  Crusades.  This  great  movement  brought 
the  people  of  western  Europe  together  and  resulted 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  59 

in  breaking  down  the  barriers  of  isolation.  It  opened 
up  and  prepared  the  way  for  new  opportunities  of  re- 
ligious and  chivalric  service  and  united  the  peoples  of 
Europe  by  a  common  faith  and  purpose.  The  men 
of  Europe  were  brought  face  to  face  with  the  civiliza- 
tions and  culture  of  the  East,  and  they  returned  home 
with  new  ideas  and  aspirations,  and  with  a  quickened 
desire  for  more  knowledge. 

(3)  The  Growth  of  Towns  and  Cities.  About  this 
time  many  towns  had  grown  to  a  considerable  degree 
of  importance  and  prosperity.  Many  of  the  larger 
cities  and  towns  possessed  charters  which  made  them 
virtually  independent  municipalities.  In  some,  ex- 
tensive trade  relations  existed,  and  different  industries 
obtained.  These  conditions  brought  about  the  de- 
velopment of  municipal  schools  where  the  elementary 
studies  were  taught  by  priests  in  the  vernacular. 
These  conditions  obtained  pretty  generally  in  France 
and  Germany. 

(4)  The  Mohammedan  Schools.  During  this 
period  the  followers  of  Mohammed  had  firmly  estab- 
lished their  faith  in  the  East  and  in  Spain.  Coin- 
cident with  the  establishment  of  their  military  power, 
schools  were  likewise  founded.  By  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury their  universities  were  found  in  the  East  and  in 
Spain.  Jurisprudence,  philosophy,  science,  etc.  were 
studied.  They  became  earnest  students  of  Greek 
philosophy,  literature,  and  art.  The  Mohammedan 
princes  employed  translators  of  the  Greek  writers 
and  the  logic  of  Aristotle  was  used  to  support  the 
teachings  of  Mohammed. 

The  most  important  of  the  Saracenic  schools  in 
Spain  were  located  at  Cordova,  Grenada,  and  Seville. 


60  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

Christian  students  were  cordially  welcomed  to  their 
universities,  and  by  the  twelfth  century  large  numbers 
were  found  at  the  Spanish  schools.  As  the  Christian 
students  returned  to  their  homes,  they  brought  with 
them  new  ideas  and  quickened  impulse  for  learning. 
Thus  the  Mohammedan  schools  became  a  large  con- 
tributing factor  to  the  intellectual  revival  of  the 
twelfth  century. 

(5)  Tendency  toward  Specialization  m  Study.  It 
seems  that  scholasticism,  with  the  special  emphasis 
that  it  placed  on  the  study  of  philosophy,  gave  re- 
newed impulse  toward  specialization.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  the  twelfth  century,  three  schools  were  already 
well  known  for  the  special  courses  of  study  which  they 
followed.  They  were  the  medical  school  at  Salerno, 
law  school  at  Bologna,  and  theological  school  at 
Paris. 

(6)  The  Church.  During  this  period  the  power 
of  the  church  was  being  extended  more  and  more  over 
temporal  affairs.  By  the  eleventh  century  the 
Papacy  had  reached  such  a  position  of  supremacy 
that  rulers  were  compelled  to  submit  to  her  decrees. 
Several  instances  briefly  stated  will  show  the  rapidly 
growing  power  of  the  Papacy  over  the  affairs  of 
European  states.  In  1077  Hildebrand  kept  Henry 
IV  of  Germany  bareheaded  and  barefooted,  waiting 
for  three  days  in  the  winter  season  in  the  castle  ^^ard 
at  Canossa  before  he  was  admitted.  In  1210  Pope 
Innocent  HI  deposed  Otho  IV  of  Germany  when  he 
failed  to  fulfill  the  pledges  he  made  to  support  the 
Papacy.  The  Pope  placed  Frederick  II  on  the 
throne.  As  a  result  of  a  quarrel  with  Pope  Innocent 
III,  King  John  of  England  was  excommunicated,  an 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  61 

interdict  was  laid  on  his  kingdom,  and  his  dominions 
given  to  the  King  of  France.  Finally  John  submit- 
ted to  the  Pope,  and  by  becoming  a  vassal  to  the  Pope 
and  paying  a  yearly  rent  to  Rome,  he  received  back 
his  possessions.  Thus  is  seen  the  great  authority 
the  church  exercised  over  the  secular  affairs  of  Eu- 
rope. 

These  different  forces,  therefore,  brought  about 
the  revival  of  learning  in  the  twelfth  century  which 
resulted  in  the  establishment  of  the  medieval  universi- 
ties. However,  without  the  fostering  care  of  the 
church  the  universities  at  this  time  could  not  have  de- 
veloped and  grown.  If  the  church  had  recognized  in 
these  institutions  anything  inimical  to  her  power  and 
authority,  she  could  have  adopted  measures  restrict- 
ing them.  But  the  church  recognized  the  need  of 
such  institutions  and  encouraged  their  development. 
At  different  times  the  church  granted  the  universities 
special  privileges  and  protected  them. 

THE  EARLY  UNIVERSITIES 

The  very  early  universities  were  the  outgrowth  of 
the  old  Episcopal  schools.  One  of  the  first  universi- 
ties to  be  established  was  the  medical  school  of 
Salerno.  About  1065  Constantine,  the  Carthaginian 
Christian,  who  was  learned  in  medicine,  lectured  and 
taught  at  Salerno.  Italian,  French,  German,  Moor- 
ish, and  Jewish  students  specialized  here.  Salerno 
was  incorporated  as  the  University  of  Naples  when 
it  was  founded  in  1225. 

As  early  as  1100  Irnerius,  by  his  lectures  in  civil 
law,  had  made  Bologna  a  famous  school.  Large 
numbers  of  students  attended  his  lectures.     Frederick 


62  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

I  in  1158  formally  recognized  the  university  as  one 
already  existing  in  a  flourishing  condition.  As  a 
result  of  a  strife  between  the  students  and  the  civic 
authorities  of  Bologna,  the  students  appealed  to 
Pope  Honorius  III  (1216),  stating  that  they  had  not 
violated  the  law.  The  Pope  confirmed  the  rights  of 
the  students  and  ordered  the  civic  authorities  to  re- 
spect their  rights. 

The  following  new  courses  were  added :  a  canon  law 
in  1150,  medicine  in  1316,  and  theology  in  1360. 
Large  numbers  of  students  were  enrolled  in  the  vari- 
ous courses,  and  in  1200  it  is  estimated  that  10,000 
were  in  attendance. 

By  the  eleventh  century  the  school  at  Paris  was 
well  known  for  its  theology,  which  was  taught  by  Wil- 
liam of  Champeaux.  He  was  succeeded  by  Abelard 
in  1113,  who  added  additional  fame  to  the  school. 
In  1135  Louis  VII,  and  in  1159  Pope  Alexander  III, 
conferred  special  privileges  upon  the  school.  Law 
and  medicine  were  later  added  to  the  courses,  but  the 
university  continued  to  lay  the  greater  stress  upon 
the  study  of  theology. 

Universities  were  later  also  established  at  Oxford, 
Cambridge,  Prague,  Vienna,  etc. 

PRIVILEGES,    DISCIPLINE,    AND    STUDIES 

By  various  grants  from  kings  and  popes  certain 
privileges  were  conferred  on  the  universities.  By  the 
power  of  the  Pope  the  licenses  of  teachers  were  recog- 
nized so  that  they  could  teach  anywhere  in  Europe. 
The  universities  were  given  the  right  of  internal 
jurisdiction.     On  the  whole  discipline  was  very  lax. 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  63 

and  the  students  got  into  frequent  quarrels  with  the 
civic  authorities.  As  has  been  stated,  the  universi- 
ties aimed  particularly  at  specialization  in  the 
studies  of  medicine,  civil  law,  canon  law,  theology  and 
philosophy.  The  text-books  used  were  certain  recog- 
nized authoritative  manuscripts  from  which  the 
teacher  dictated  and  the  student  copied  and  memo- 
rized. For  example,  in  1150,  Peter  the  Lombard's 
"  Liber  Sententiarium  "  became  the  recognized  text- 
book in  theology,  and  the  dictation  method  which  was 
in  vogue  was  likewise  used  for  this  book.  The  growth 
and  development  of  universities  mark  the  close  of  the 
medieval  period.  From  their  teachings  arose  new 
social,  educational,  and  religious  forces  which  cul- 
minated in  the  Renaissance  and  the  Reformation. 

PRE-REFORMATION  MOVEMENTS 

For  many  decades  prior  to  the  Reformation  several 
distinctive  movements  may  be  traced  which  sprang  up 
within  the  medieval  church,  as  antithetical  to  the  pre- 
vailing dogmas,  rites,  and  ceremonies,  and  to  the 
claims  of  the  priesthood,  as  foreign  to  the  ideals  of 
primitive  Christianity.  Dr.  Fisher  states,  "  Who- 
ever, whether  in  the  chair  of  theology,  in  his  pulpit, 
through  the  devotional  treatise,  or  by  fostering  the 
study  of  languages  and  of  history,  or  in  perilous  com- 
bat with  ecclesiastical  abuses,  attracted  the  minds  of 
men  to  the  Scriptures  and  to  a  more  spiritual  con- 
ception of  religion,  was,  in  a  greater  or  less  measure, 
a  reformer  before  the  Reformation." 

The  following  are  the  most  important  pre-Reform- 
ation  movements : 


64  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 


THE    WALDENSES 


During  the  first  half  of  the  fourteenth  century  one 
of  the  sects  who  was  most  actively  engaged  in  re- 
ligious educational  reforms  was  the  Waldenses,  who 
traced  the  organization  of  their  society  to  Peter 
Waldo  of  Lyons,  who  preached  and  taught  the  Bible 
to  the  people.  They  sought  to  make  the  people  ac- 
quainted with  the  Scriptures  and  urged  them  to  read 
it.  They  taught  principally  in  northern  Italy  and 
southern  France. 

jooHN  wyclif:     13S4-1384 

John  Wyclif,  a  great  scholar  of  Oxford  University, 
boldly  demanded  certain  reforms  to  take  place  within 
the  church.  He  opposed  the  complex  organization 
of  the  clergy,  urged  greater  simplicity  in  Christian 
worship,  and  demanded  of  the  clergy  that  they  take  a 
deeper  interest  in  their  parishes.  His  greatest  serv- 
ice rendered  to  the  cause  of  religious  instruction  was 
his  translation  of  the  Bible  into  the  English  lan- 
guage. 

JOHN  Huss:     1369-1415 

John  Huss  of  Bohemia,  who  was  largely  interested 
and  actively  engaged  in  reform  movements,  was  also 
influenced  in  his  work  by  the  writings  of  Wyclif.  By 
voice  and  pen  he  sought  to  establish  nobler  concep- 
tions among  the  clergy  and  to  have  the  Bible  recog- 
nized as  the  source  of  greatest  authority  in  the 
church.  Huss  was  an  earnest  preacher  and  a  zeal- 
ous educator.  His  work  formed  the  basis  upon  which 
larger  results  in  religion  and  education  were  to  be 
established. 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  65 

JEROME    SAVONAROLA       1452-1498 

Savonarola's  great  work  of  reform  was  done  in 
Florence.  He  denounced  the  wickedness  and  immor- 
ality which  abounded  there  like  one  of  the  prophets 
of  old.  Savonarola's  work  brought  about  reforms 
in  the  religion  and  government  of  the  city.  His  ef- 
forts made  him  many  enemies,  among  them  Alexander 
VI,  the  Pope.  His  open  and  fearless  preaching  and 
teaching  led  to  his  excommunication,  which  he  dis~ 
credited  as  out  of  harmony  with  the  Word  of  God. 
Finally  his  enemies  became  powerful  enough  to  cause 
his  imprisonment.  While  in  prison  he  wrote  a  classic 
treatise  on  justification  based  on  the  fifty -first  Psalm. 
When  Luther  read  it  he  was  so  much  pleased  with  it 
that  he  had  it  published  and  wrote  a  fittmg  preface 
for  it.      Savonarola  was  finally  condemned  to  death. 

THE  REVIVAL  OF  LEARNING 

Another  event  which  was  a  large  contributing  cause 
to  the  Reformation  was  the  revival  of  learning.  By 
it  culture  was  revived  and  the  widespread  ignorance 
of  the  Middle  Ages  vanished.  The  Renaissance  had 
its  birth  in  Italy.  Dante,  Petrarch,  and  Boccaccio 
were  the  three  great  Italian  writers  who  may  be  called 
the  pioneers  of  the  new  movement. 

In  1453  Constantinople  was  captured  by  the  Turks 
and  many  Greek  scholars  and  teachers  sought  a  new 
home  in  Italy  They  brought  with  them  valuable 
manuscripts  from  the  East,  and  their  study  gave  new 
impulse  to  the  movement.  Large  numbers  of  schools 
were  established  where  the  Roman  and  Greek  classics 
were    studied.     Italian    princes    became    patrons    of 


66  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

learning,  and  they  expended  large  sums  of  money  for 
the  establishment  of  libraries  and  the  collection  of 
ancient  manuscripts. 

About  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century  printing 
was  invented.  The  rapidity  with  which  books  came 
from  the  printery  in  that  age  was  almost  remarkable. 
Thus  ancient  manuscripts,  commentaries,  grammars, 
etc.  were  published,  which  caused  the  new  culture  to 
spread  rapidly. 

The  influence  of  the  Renaissance  was  not  only  felt 
in  the  revived  interests  of  classical  studies,  but  like- 
wise in  the  field  of  religion.  As  students  turned  to 
the  sources  of  the  classics,  so  likewise  religionists 
sought  the  sources  of  the  Scriptures.  Religious 
scholars  studied  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  in  the 
original  languages,  and  a  revived  interest  was  mani- 
fested in  the  work  of  the  church  fathers. 

The  revival  of  learning  sounded  the  death  knell  of 
scholasticism.  It  showed  that  the  scholastics  who 
based  so  much  of  their  reasoning  on  the  writings  of 
Aristotle  had  followed  faulty  translations  instead  of 
the  original  text.  It  took  away  many  misconcep- 
tions of  culture  and  history  of  the  past  which  clouded 
the  medieval  mind.  The  new  culture  was  gradually 
admitted  to  the  universities,  and  when  the  University 
of  Wittenberg  was  organized  in  1502,  particular  at- 
tention was  devoted  from  the  first  to  classical  and 
biblical  studies. 

THE  RENAISSANCE  IN  ITALY  AND  GERMANY 

In  Italy  the  revival  of  learning  centered  itself 
primarily  in  the  study  of  Greek  and  Latin  classics, 
and  its  application  of  religious  researches  was  rele- 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  67 

gated  to  a  secondary  place.  Gradually  the  Renais- 
sance spread  into  Germany,  where  a  remarkably 
awakened  interest  was  carried  on  in  the  various 
studies.  From  its  incipiency  in  Germany  the  move- 
ment assumed  a  religious  tone.  This  interest  was 
shown  particularly  in  the  study  of  the  Scriptures. 
Scholars  studied  the  New  Testament  in  the  Greek  and 
the  Old  Testament  in  the  Hebrew  in  order  to  come 
to  a  clearer  interpretation  of  the  Word.  This  in- 
tensive Bible  study  was  bound  to  lead  into  a  conflict 
with  the  dogmatic  and  authoritative  concepts  of  the 
medieval  church. 

BRETHREN  OF  THE  COMMON  LIFE 

This  order  was  founded  in  the  fourteenth  century 
by  Gerhard  Groot,  a  Hollander.  The  aim  of  the 
order  was  to  make  a  careful  study  of  the  Bible  and  to 
give  systematic  Bible  instruction  to  poor  children. 
They  established  schools  at  various  places,  of  which 
Deventer  was  the  leading  one.  They  did  a  pioneer 
work  in  Bible  study  and  religious  instruction.  Their 
greatest  representative  was  Thomas  a  Kempis,  the 
author  of  the  immortal  book,  "  The  Imitation  of 
Christ." 

JOHN  WESSEL 

John  Wessel,  who  helped  to  foster  the  revival  of 
learning  in  Germany,  received  his  education  at  De- 
venter,  Rome,  and  Paris.  He  was  also  a  teacher  at 
the  University  of  Paris  from  1470  to  1480.  There 
he  exercised  strong  influence  over  two  students,  Ru- 
dolph Agricola  and  John  Reuchlin,  who  afterwards 
b^cftlP?   great   scholars   of   Germany.     Wesgel   had 


68  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

great  fondness  for  the  study  of  the  Bible,  which  he 
studied  in  the  original  languages.  His  influence  was 
largely  instrumental  in  giving  a  religious  trend  to  the 
Renaissance  in  Germany. 

RUDOLPH  AGRICOLA 

Rudolph  Agricola  was  born  in  1443  near  Gronin- 
gen,  Germany.  He  received  his  education  from 
Thomas  a  Kempis,  the  Universities  of  Louvrain  and 
Paris,  and  subsequently  he  studied  in  Italy.  Upon 
his  return  to  Germany  he  located  at  Heidelberg, 
where  he  gave  public  and  private  instruction.  His 
learning  and  scholarly  ability  soon  gave  him  a  wide 
reputation  throughout  Germany.  Due  to  the  influ- 
ence of  Wessel,  he  also  became  a  student  of  Hebrew. 
Agricola  was  one  of  the  pioneers  of  the  humanistic 
movement  in  Germany. 

JOHN  REUCHLIN 

John  Reuchlin  was  bom  at  Pforzheim  in  1455. 
He  studied  at  the  University  of  Paris,  at  Basel,  and 
subsequently  in  Italy.  He  became  a  proficient  stu- 
dent of  Greek  and  Hebrew,  which  he  taught  at  the 
Universities  of  Ingolstadt  and  Tubingen.  Reuchlin 
has  been  called  the  father  of  modern  Hebrew  studies. 
He  published  the  first  Hebrew  grammar  in  Germany 
in  1506.  Concerning  his  Hebrew  studies  he  once 
wrote  to  Cardinal  Hadnoir :  "  I  devoted  myself  to 
the  Hebrew  language  because  I  perceived  the  great 
value  which  it  would  have  for  religion  and  true 
theology.  To  this  end  I  have  always  directed  my 
labors,  and  continue  to  direct  them  more  than  ever. 
As  a  true  worshipper  of  our  Lord,  I  have  done  all  for 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  69 

the  restoration  and  glorification  of  the  true  Christian 
Church."  1 

He  was  a  great  teacher,  who  taught  many  students 
publicly  and  privately.  By  his  influence  humanistic 
studies  gained  a  place  in  many  German  universities. 

ERASMUS 

Erasmus,  the  greatest  scholar  of  the  Renaissance 
period,  was  born  October  27,  1466,  at  Rotterdam. 
He  was  left  an  orphan  at  an  early  age,  and  his  three 
guardians  forced  him  into  a  convent.  He  disliked 
the  conventual  life  and  he  desired  to  go  to  some  uni- 
versity to  study.  Finally  the  opportunity  came  to 
him  to  study  at  the  College  of  Montaigne  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Paris.  In  his  student  days  the  brilliancy 
of  his  intellect  elicited  the  admiration  of  his 
teachers,  and  they  prophesied  for  him  a  great 
scholarly  career  which  was  fulfilled. 

For  a  time  he  taught,  but  his  greatest  work  w^as 
done  as  a  man  of  letters.  Fisher  writes  of  him : 
"  Yet  the  wit  and  wisdom  and  varied  erudition  which 
he  poured  forth  from  his  full  mind,  made  him  justly 
the  most  popular  of  writers.  He  sat  on  his  throne, 
an  object  of  admiration  and  of  envy.  By  his  multi- 
farious publications  and  his  wide  correspondence  with 
eminent  persons  —  ecclesiastics,  statesmen,  and 
scholars, —  his  influence  was  diffused  over  all  Eur- 
ope." 2 

However,  the  greatest  service  that  he  contributed 
to  the  Reformation  and  religious  education  was  his 
translation  of  the  New  Testament  in  Greek,  which  he 

1  Painter:     History   of   Education^,   page   129. 

2  Fisher:     The    Reformation,   page   66. 


70  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

published.  Concerning  it  he  wrote,  "  It  is  my  desire 
to  lead  back  that  cold  dispute  about  words  called 
theology  to  its  real  fountain.  Would  to  God  that 
this  work  may  bear  as  much  fruit  to  Christianity  as 
it  has  cost  me  toil  and  application." 


CHAPTER  IV 

HISTORY   OF   RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION: 
THE  LATER  PERIOD 

The  Reformation  of  Education  —  Condition  of 
Church  and  Education — The  Reformation  a  Re- 
ligious and  Educational  Movement  —  Two  Basic 
Principles  —  Martin  Luther  —  Luther  and  Educa- 
tion — The  Bible  —  Luther's  Catechisms  —  Philip 
Melanchthon  —  Ulrich  Zwingli  —  John  Calvin  — 
The  Jesuit  Schools  —  Rabelais:  14-83-1553  —  Roger 
Ascham:  1515-1568  —  Michel  de  Montaigne:  1533- 
1592  — Francis  Bacon:  1561-1626  —  John  Milton: 
1608-167 J,.  —  Wolfgang  Ratich:  1511-1635  —  John 
Amos  Comenius:  1592-1671 — John  Locke: 
1632-170^  —  August        Francke:        1663-1727  — 

—  Jean  Jacques  Rousseau:  1712-1778  —  John 
Basedow:  1723-1790  —  Johann  Ernesti:  1707-1781 

—  John  Henri/  Pestalozzi  17^6-1827  —  Freidrich 
Froebel :  1 783-1852  —  Jean  Frederic  Herbart : 
1776-1841  —  Herbert  Spencer:  1820-1903. 

THE  REFORMATION  OF  EDUCATION 

The  sixteenth  century  Reformation  marks  the  be- 
ginning of  the  modern  historical  movement  of  re- 
ligion and  education.  Fisher  says:  "  The  Reforma- 
tion, like  all  other  great  social  convulsions,  was  long 
in  preparation.  It  was  one  part  of  that  general 
progress,  complex  in  its  character,  which  marked  the 

71 


n  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

fifteenth  and  the  opening  of  the  sixteenth  centuries 
as  the  period  of  transition  from  the  Middle  Ages  to 
modern  civilization." 

The  pre-Reformation  movements  and  the  Renais- 
sance contributed  in  large  measure  to  the  Reforma- 
tion. A  number  of  the  Teutonic  scholars  had  been 
led  bj  the  humanistic  revival  to  specialize  in  Scrip- 
tural studies  which  gave  them  new  conceptions  of  the 
church  which  on  the  whole  were  antithetical  to  the 
views  of  the  medieval  church. 

CONDITION  OF  CHURCH  AND  EDUCATION 

The  sad  condition  of  the  church  also  occasioned 
the  Reformation.  The  picture  of  the  church  of  this 
period  is  one  which  presents  a  dark  and  gloomy  as- 
pect. The  clergy  were  ignorant,  degenerate,  and 
lazy  in  the  performance  of  the  duties  of  their  office. 
Kurtz  sa3^s :  "  Too  frequently  the  cloisters  became 
the  seats  of  dissoluteness,  debauchery,  idleness, 
crimes,  and  unnatural  vices." 

The  schools,  likewise,  were  in  a  deplorable  state. 
They  were  neglected,  and  superstition  and  ignorance 
abounded  among  the  people.  Concerning  the  schools 
of  Saxony  in  15^8,  Luther  wrote:  "The  common 
people,  especially  in  the  villages,  are  utterly  igno- 
rant of  the  Christian  doctrine ;  even  many  pastors 
are  wholly  unqualified  to  teach ;  and  yet  all  are  called 
Christians,  are  baptized,  and  partake  of  the  sacra- 
ment, knowing  neither  the  Lord's  Prayer,  the  Creed, 
nor  the  Ten  Commandments,  and  living  and  acting 
like  irrational  beasts." 

To  change  this  condition  of  affairs  in  church  and 
education  was  the  object  of  the  reformers. 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  73 

THE  REFORMATION  A  RELIGIOUS  AND 
EDUCATIONAL  MOVEMENT 

The  Reformation  was  primarily  a  religious  and 
educational  movement.  It  was  a  religious  movement 
in  that  it  sought  to  purify  the  medieval  church  of  its 
corruption.  It  sought  to  reform  the  church  ac- 
cording to  Scriptural  authority  and  principles. 

It  was  an  educational  movement  in  that  the  re- 
formers sought  to  extend  the  means  of  instruction. 
The  prevalence  of  ignorance  among  clergy  and  laity 
alike  has  already  been  shown.  The  program  of  the 
reformers  included  the  application  of  the  reforming 
principles  to  the  universities  and  higher  institutions 
of  learning,  and  at  the  same  time  the  establishment 
of  schools  to  foster  popular  education.  They  laid 
much  stress  and  emphasis  upon  religious  instruction 
so  that  the  people  might  be  given  a  thorough  knowl- 
edge of  Biblical  studies. 

TWO  BASIC  PRINCIPLES 

The  two  great  basic  principles  underlying  the  Ref- 
ormation were  (1)  justification  by  faith  alone;  (2) 
the  Bible  and  not  the  church  was  the  source  or  au- 
thority of  faith  and  practice. 

In  upholding  the  principle  of  justification  by  faith 
alone,  the  reformers  claimed  that  through  faith  all 
men  became  priests  before  God.  Christ  alone  be- 
comes the  only  mediator  between  God  and  man.  This 
view  does  away  with  the  hierarchial  idea  that  man  can 
come  to  the  Father  only  through  the  intercession  of 
the  priest.  This  conception,  therefore,  made  the 
Christian  religion  Christocentric  as  antipodal  to  the 


74  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

medieval  theology  which  made  the   church  the  cen- 
ter. 

The  reformers  took  the  Bible  as  tlie  source  of  their 
viewpoint  on  faith  and  practice.  The  ideal  life  is 
found  in  the  example  of  the  Master,  and  his  teach- 
ings are  to  be  inculcated  in  the  life  of  each  individual. 
In  order  that  the  laity  might  come  to  a  true  knowl- 
edge of  these  essential  principles,  schools  were  to  be 
established  where  religion  and  all  other  useful  in- 
struction would  be  imparted.  Thus  the  foundations 
of  modern  education  were  laid  broad  and  deep. 

MARTIN  LUTHER 

Luther  was  the  great  leader  of  the  Reformation 
movement.  The  prodigious  results  which  he  brought 
about  in  the  spheres  of  religion  and  education  have 
given  him  the  well  merited  title,  "  The  Hero  of  the 
Reformation." 

He  was  born  November  10,  1483,  at  Eisleben, 
Germany.  His  parents  were  in  hmiible  circum- 
stances, pious  and  God-fearing,  and  ambitious  to  have 
their  son  well  educated.  He  studied  at  Magdeburg, 
Eisenach,  and  Erfurt,  where  he  received  his  degree 
of  Master  of  Arts. 

It  was  in  the  university  library  at  Erfurt,  1501, 
that  Luther  discovered  the  Latin  Bible,  which  he  had 
never  seen  before.  Concerning  it  he  said,  "  As  a 
young  man  I  saw  a  Bible  in  the  university  library  at 
Erfurt,  and  read  a  portion  of  the  first  book  of 
Samuel,  but  I  had  to  attend  a  lecture  just  then;  will- 
ingly would  I  have  read  through  the  whole  book,  but 
had  no  opportunity." 

The  finding  of  the  Bible  led  him  to  change  his  plans 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  75 

from  entering  the  legal  profession  to  become  a  monk, 
and  much  against  the  will  of  his  father  he  entered  the 
Augustinian  convent  at  Erfurt.  Here  he  spent  three 
3^ears  in  diligent  study  and  meditation.  In  1508  he 
was  made  a  professor  in  the  University  of  Witten- 
berg, where  he  lectured  on  philosophy  and  the  Scrip- 
tures. 

In  1511  he  was  sent  on  a  mission  to  Rome  on  behalf 
of  his  order.  He  was  disappointed  in  his  visit  and 
saddened  at  finding  the  corruption  and  profligacy 
which  obtained  in  the  papal  court. 

On  his  return  to  Wittenberg  he  resumed  his  duties 
at  the  university.  It  was  in  1517  that  Luther  raised 
his  voice  in  protest  to  certain  existing  conditions  in 
the  Church.  The  occasion  was  the  sale  of  indul- 
gences at  Wittenberg  by  John  Tetzel,  a  Dominican 
from  Leipsic.  In  protest  against  it  he  nailed  ninety- 
five  theses  on  the  church  door  of  All  Saints  at  Wit- 
tenberg, October  31,  1517.  They  were  a  challenge 
for  a  discussion,  and  Luther  was  ready  to  defend  his 
position.  This  action  marked  the  beginning  of  the 
Reformation. 

Subsequent  events  led  to  an  open  conflict  with  the 
church.  In  1521  he  was  summoned  before  the  Diet 
of  Worms  to  retract  his  statements.  He  refused  to 
do  so.  He  said,  "  Unless  I  am  proved  to  be  in  error 
by  testimony  from  Holy  Writ,  or  by  clear  and  over- 
powering reasons,  I  cannot  and  will  not  recant,  be- 
cause it  is  neither  safe  nor  advisable  to  do  anything 
against  conscience.  Here  I  stand.  I  cannot  do 
otherwise.     God  help  me.     Amen  !  " 

After  the  Diet  of  Worms,  by  voice  and  pen  Luther 
continued    to    advocate    aggressively    the    principles 


76  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

of  the  Reformation  until  the  time  of  his  death  in 
1546. 

LUTHER  AND  EDUCATION 

The  deplorable  condition  of  the  schools  during  this 
time  has  already  been  referred  to.  The  reformers 
realized  the  necessity  of  establishing  Christian  schools 
in  order  to  insure  the  permanency  of  the  Reforma- 
tion. 

From  Wittenberg  in  1524  Luther  wrote  a  letter  to 
the  mayors  and  aldermen  of  all  the  cities  of  Germany 
in  behalf  of  Christian  schools  which  shows  his  great 
interest  in  education  and  from  which  the  following 
is  an  excerpt: 

"  Thus,  in  all  the  world,  even  among  the  heathen, 
schoolmasters  and  teachers  have  been  found  neces- 
sary where  a  nation  was  to  be  elevated.  Hence  in 
the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians  Paul  employs  a  word 
in  common  use  when  he  says, '  The  law  was  our  school- 
master.' 

"  Since,  then,  a  city  must  have  well-trained  people, 
and  since  the  greatest  need,  lack,  and  lament  is  that 
such  are  not  to  be  found,  we  must  not  wait  till  they 
grow  up  of  themselves ;  neither  can  they  be  hewed  out 
of  stones  nor  cut  out  of  wood;  nor  will  God  work 
miracles  so  long  as  men  can  attain  their  object 
through  means  within  their  reach.  Therefore  we 
must  see  to  it,  and  spare  no  trouble  or  expense  to 
educate  and  form  them  ourselves.  For  whose  fault 
is  it  that  in  all  the  cities  there  are  at  present  so  few 
skillful  people  except  the  rulers,  who  have  allowed  the 
young  to  grow  up  like  trees  in  the  forest  and  have 
not  cared  how  they  were  reared  and  taught  .'^     The 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  77 

growth,  consequently,  has  been  so  irregular  that  the 
forest  furnishes  no  timber  for  building  purposes,  but 
like  a  useless  hedge,  is  good  only  for  fuel."  ^ 

Luther's  appeal  was  not  in  vain.  The  Duke  of 
Mansfield  commissioned  him  in  1525  to  establish  pri- 
mary and  secondary  schools  in  Eisleben.  After  the 
plan  of  these  schools  others  were  established  through- 
out Germany. 

THE  BIBLE 

In  order  that  the  German  people  might  know  and 
understand  the  Word  of  God,  in  1524,  Luther  issued 
his  translation  of  the  New  Testament,  which  was 
based  on  the  Greek  Testament  of  Erasmus.  In  1534 
his  translation  of  the  whole  Bible  was  published. 
Luther's  great  vernacular  translation  of  the  Bible 
has  been  well  called  the  classic  of  the  German  people, 
—  particularly  so,  since  he  based  his  w^ork  on  the 
original  languages  of  the  Scriptures. 

Luther's  Bible  was  a  great  educational  factor  for 
his  people.  They  were  anxious  to  read  the  Scrip- 
tures and  to  glean  from  the  sacred  pages  the  revela- 
tion of  the  divine  Will.  In  a  short  time  a  half  mil- 
lion copies  were  circulated.  "  Even  shoemakers, 
women,  and  ignorant  people  who  have  learned  only  a 
little  German,  are  eagerly  reading  the  New  Testa- 
ment as  the  fountain  of  all  truth ;  and  that,  more- 
over, with  such  frequency  that  they  know  it  by  heart." 
Thus  wrote  a  Romanist  of  the  time. 

LUTHER'S  CATECHISMS 

The  introduction  of  the  Catechism  resulted  from 
the  Saxon  Visitation  in  1528,  when  it  was  found  that 
1  Painter:     Luther  on   Education,  pages   181   and   1S2. 


78  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

the  pastors  and  people  were  alike  ignorant  of  the 
essentials  of  religion.  In  order  that  joung  and  old 
might  have  a  knowledge  of  the  fundamental  truths  of 
religion,  Luther  prepared  his  two  catechisms.  On 
January  15,  1529,  he  wrote  to  Pastor  Martin  Goer- 
litz  of  Brunswick,  "  I  am  now  engaged  in  preparing 
a  catechism  for  ignorant  pagans."  His  large  Cate- 
chism was  published  April  S3,  15S9.  In  the  mean- 
time he  prepared  an  abridged  edition  of  the  Large 
Catechism,  known  as  the  Small  Catechism,  which  was 
published  May  16,  1529.  His  Small  Catechism  con- 
sists of  five  parts,  the  Ten  Commandments,  the  Creed, 
the  Lord's  Prayer,  Baptism,  and  the  Lord's  Supper. 
The  purpose  of  the  Small  Catechism  was  to  set 
forth  the  fundamental  truths  of  Divine  Revelation 
in  a  simple  way  in  order  that  they  could  be  easily 
grasped  and  understood.  The  plan  followed  is  the 
question  and  answer  method,  and  each  answer  is  sup- 
ported by  Scriptural  texts.  "  Taken  as  a  whole  this 
little  book  exhibits  Luther's  deep  insight  into  funda- 
mental truth,  his  power  of  condensation,  his  sim- 
plicity of  statement  and  his  conservatism.  Next  to 
the  translation  of  the  Bible  it  is  Luther's  greatest 
and  most  useful  work.  It  has  been  translated  into 
many  languages  and  has  been  taught  to  millions  of 
children."  ^ 

Thus  Luther  was  anxious  to  have  the  German 
people  given  the  proper  religious  instruction,  and 
for  this  purpose  he  translated  the  Bible  into  the 
vernacular  and  prepared  his  catechisms.  The  schools 
he  established  were  for  the  purpose  of  fostering  re- 
1  Prof.  Richard:     Lectures  on  Catechetes,  pages  18  and  19. 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  79 

ligious  and  secular  education.  He  laid  the  founda- 
tions for  popular  educational  reform  and  his  activi- 
ties for  educational  reform  show  him  to  be  the  great 
educational  leader  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

PHILIP  MELANCHTHON 

Another  great  leader  of  the  German  Reformation 
was  Melanchthon.  He  was  known  as  the  Preceptor 
Germaniae  and  was  closely  associated  with  Luther  in 
the  Reformation  work.  He  studied  at  the  Universi- 
ties of  Heidelberg  and  Tubingen.  In  1518  he  was 
made  Professor  of  Greek  in  the  University  of  Witten- 
berg. Here  an  intimate  friendship  was  formed  be- 
tween Luther  and  Melanchthon  which  was  a  great 
help  to  each  during  the  many  trials  of  the  Reforma- 
tion. Melanchthon  exerted  an  influence  upon  the 
Reformation  in  many  ways,  but  particularly  by  his 
writings  and  teaching. 

He  was  the  author  of  many  books.  His  most 
notable  work,  published  in  1521,  was  known  as  the 
"  Loci  Communes,''  which  was  the  first  book  on  dog- 
matic theology  published  in  the  Protestant  church. 
Luther  commended  an  earnest  reading  of  this  work. 
It  was  Melanchthen's  best  contribution  to  the  cause 
of  religious  pedagogy  of  the  period.  He  was  recog- 
nized as  a  brilliant  and  scholarly  teacher  throughout 
Europe.  Large  numbers  of  students  attended  his 
instructions  at  Wittenberg.  Here  they  were  taught 
the  ideals  of  culture  and  religion,  and  his  students 
helped  in  many  ways  to  promulgate  the  principles  of 
the  Reformation. 


80  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

ULRICH  ZWINGLI 

Zwingli  was  the  founder  of  the  Protestant  move- 
ment in  Switzerland,  and  from  its  inception  he  was 
vitally  interested  in  the  promotion  of  Christian  edu- 
cation. In  1523  he  wrote  a  treatise  on  education 
under  the  caption,  "  The  Christian  Education  of 
Youth,"  in  which  he  urges  the  necessity  and  impor- 
tance of  biblical  studies. 

JOHN  CALVIN 

Calvin,  as  one  of  the  later  reformers,  is  best  known 
for  the  wonderful  work  which  he  carried  on  at  Geneva. 
Here  he  began  his  work  in  his  twenty-eighth  year, 
and  with  the  exception  of  a  brief  period  he  con- 
tinued his  work  in  that  city  until  his  death  in  1564. 

Calvin  realized  the  necessity  of  instituting  re- 
ligious education  in  Geneva,  and  to  foster  it  he 
started  schools  throughout  the  canton.  He  had  no 
faith  in  education  apart  from  religious  instruction, 
and  to  carry  out  his  ideas  he  prepared  a  catechism  in 
which  the  children  were  to  be  instructed  in  the  schools. 

The  reformers  recognized  the  need  and  importance 
of  education.  They  laid  the  greatest  stress  on  Chris- 
tian education  because  the  exigencies  of  the  time  de- 
manded it.  At  times  they  may  have  over-emphasized 
its  needs,  but  in  their  zeal  for  reformation  they  under- 
stood the  vital  need  for  religious  instruction.  How- 
ever, they  laid  the  foundations  broad  and  deep  for 
modern  Christian  and  secular  education. 

THE  JESUIT  SCHOOLS 

One  of  the  great  causes  of  the  rapid  growth  of  the 
Protestant  Reformation  was  the  system  of  religious 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  81 

instruction  provided  for  the  children  and  youth  by 
the  leaders  of  the  movement.  In  order  to  counteract 
the  movement  and  to  save  itself  from  destruction,  the 
Catholic  church  fostered  the  organization  of  the  Je- 
suit schools.  By  and  through  the  Jesuit  system 
many  countries  were  saved  by  the  Catholic  faith. 
For  more  than  a  century  their  schools  were  the 
great  educational  agencies  in  the  Catholic  church. 

The  Jesuits  were  officially  recognized  by  the 
Catholic  church  in  1540.  In  that  same  year  Paul 
III  issued  a  papal  Bull  to  the  effect  that  the  Jesuit 
schools  were  organized  especially  for  the  purpose  of 
instructing  boys  and  ignorant  persons  in  the  Chris- 
tian religion.  By  special  grants  and  privileges  which 
they  obtained  from  the  popes,  they  succeeded  in  es- 
tablishing many  schools  and  colleges  throughout 
Europe. 

The  Jesuit  curriculum  embraced  two  courses  of 
study, —  studies  superiora  et  inferiora.  In  the 
smaller  schools  the  studies  inferiora  obtained,  which 
were  divided  into  five  classes.  Students  were  admit- 
ted to  these  courses  at  the  age  of  ten  and  continued 
until  sixteen.  All  instruction  was  given  gratuitously. 
Text-books  were  frequently  used,  but  most  of  the  in- 
struction was  given  by  lectures.  The  students  were 
frequently  quizzed  and  tested  in  their  knowledge  of 
the  text-books  and  lectures. 

Students  were  admitted  to  the  studia  superiora 
courses  between  the  ages  of  twenty  and  twenty-four. 
These  courses  were  pursued  in  the  higher  schools 
and  colleges.  A  large  number  of  these  students  were 
preparing  to  carry  on  the  future  work  of  the  society. 

The    religious    instruction    of    the    students    was 


82  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

strongly  emphasized.  Prayers  were  offered  before 
each  lecture  or  recitation.  The  students  were  re- 
quired to  attend  mass  each  morning.  A  Jesuit  father 
confessor  lived  at  each  school,  and  the  rules  required 
all  students  to  make  frequent  confessions.  Sacchini 
once  wrote,  "  The  education  of  the  young  is  the 
revocation  of  the  world.  These  schools  are  the  camp 
of  God;  in  them  lie  the  seeds  of  all  that  is  good. 
There  I  see  the  foundation  and  ground-work  of  the 
commonwealth,  which  many  fail  to  see  from  its  being 
underground." 

The  success  of  the  Jesuit  schools  rested  entirely  in 
the  relationship  of  the  students  to  the  teachers,  who 
sought  by  leading  their  pupils  to  interest  them  in 
their  studies.  They  took  every  precaution  to  see 
that  the  students  were  not  overtaxed  with  work,  and 
in  order  to  help  each  boy  the  master  came  to  know 
the  capacities  of  each  student  for  work. 

However,  at  its  best  the  Jesuit  plan  of  education 
resulted  only  in  one-sided  development.  In  its  final 
analysis  their  conception  of  education  was  only  a 
mechanical  process.  The  student's  mind  was  to  be 
well  stored  with  facts  irrespectiA^e  of  correlation,  and 
he  was  counted  brilliant  who  could  make  a  great  dis- 
play memoriter  of  his  knowledge.  Consequently, 
their  system  prevented  and  suppressed  freedom  of 
thought,  originality,  religious  toleration,  and  the 
formation  of  correct  judgments. 

RABELAIS:     1483-1553 

With  Rabelais  a  new  epoch  begins  in  education. 
He  does  not  break  with  the  educational  ideals  of  the 
Renaissance;  he  fosters  and  advances  them,  and  his 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  83 

own  initiative  goes  beyond  them.  In  every  respect 
Rabelais  is  a  realist.  For  example,  according  to  his 
conception  the  student  should  not  discard  the  old 
writers  but  go  to  them  for  instruction  about  things, 
and  at  the  same  time  observe  certain  facts  and 
phenomena  in  the  natural  world  and  "  compare  them 
with  what  is  written  of  them  in  the  books  of  the  an- 
cients." Rabelais  believed  that  wisdom,  eloquence, 
and  piety  constituted  the  end  of  education.  His  cur- 
riculum embraced  the  study  of  Greek,  Hebrew,  Chal- 
dee,  Latin,  the  Quadrivium,  medicine,  natural  science. 
Scriptures,  physical  culture,  etc. 

He  does  not  have  much  to  say  with  reference  to  re- 
ligious instruction,  although  he  urges  the  student  to 
begin  the  day  with  studying  and  meditating  on  the 
Holy  Scriptures  and  to  pray  unto  the  good  Father 
for  guidance  and  blessing.  He  also  urges  the  read- 
ing and  study  of  the  Scriptures  in  the  original  lan- 
guages. We  find  in  Rabelais'  system  the  beginning 
of  scientific  inquiry  and  investigation  which  was  de- 
veloped later  by  leading  educators  and  scientists. 
His  influence  may  be  traced  in  the  educational  ideas 
of  Montaigne,  Locke,  and  Rousseau. 

ROGER  ASCHAM:     1515-1568 

Ascham's  greatest  contribution  to  education  was 
the  production  of  his  "  S'cholemaster,''  a  work  which 
has  since  become  a  classic.  Concerning  it.  Professor 
Ma^^er  has  said,  "  This  book  sets  forth  the  only  sound 
method  of  acquiring  a  dead  language."  Concerning 
the  teaching  of  Latin  he  wrote,  "  First,  let  the  child 
learn  the  eight  parts  of  speech,  and  then  the  right 
joining  together  of  substantives  with  adjectives,  the 


84  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

noun  with  the  verb,  the  relative  with  the  antecedent." 
Ascham  takes  for  example  Sturm's  selection  of 
Cicero's  Epistles  which  the  teacher  is  to  teach  the 
pupil  simply,  and  to  help  him  to  a  clear  understand- 
ing of  the  text.  Then  he  gives  the  following  direc- 
tions, "  This  done,  then  let  the  child  by  and  by  both 
construe  and  parse  it  over  again ;  so  that  it  may  ap- 
pear that  the  child  doubteth  in  nothing  that  his 
master  has  taught  him  before.  After  this,  the  child 
must  take  a  paper  book,  and,  sitting  in  some  place 
where  no  man  shall  prompt  him,  by  himself  let  him 
translate  into  English  his  former  lesson.  Then  show- 
ing it  to  his  master,  let  the  master  take  from  him  his 
Latin  book,  and  pausing  an  hour  at  the  least,  then 
let  the  child  translate  his  own  English  into  Latin 
again  in  another  paper  book." 

Ascham  is  the  pioneer  in  education  in  developing 
and  laying  stress  upon  a  good,  unique,  and  clear 
method  in  the  study  of  language.  What  he  has  to 
say  about  method  in  language  study,  others  have  car- 
ried out  to  logical  conclusions  in  applying  scientific 
methods  to  all  educational  work. 

MICHEL  de  MONTAIGNE:     1533-1593 

Montaigne  received  his  education  from  private  in- 
struction and  the  College  of  Guienne  at  Bordeaux. 
Later  he  became  a  lawyer.  Not  caring  to  devote  his 
life  to  politics,  he  retired  to  his  estate,  where  he 
wrote  his  famous  "  Essays."  In  his  "  Essays," 
Montaigne  has  many  pertinent  thoughts  on  educa- 
tion. He  showed  marked  reactionary  and  practical 
tendencies  in  reference  to  the  educational  ideals  of  his 
time. 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  85 

Concerning  language  study  he  wrote :  "  Fine 
speaking  is  a  very  good  and  commendable  quality,  but 
not  so  excellent  or  so  necessary  as  some  would  make 
it;  and  I  am  scandalized  that  our  whole  life  should 
be  spent  in  nothing  else.  I  would  first  understand 
my  own  language,  and  that  of  my  neighbor  with 
whom  most  of  my  business  and  conversation  lies." 
He  would  direct  each  student  to  study  the  world  as 
the  source  of  knowledge.  Of  it  he  writes :  "  This 
great  world  is  the  mirror  wherein  we  are  to  behold 
ourselves,  to  be  able  to  know  ourselves  as  we  ought 
to  do.  In  short,  I  would  have  this  to  be  the  book  my 
young  gentlemen  should  study  with  the  most  atten- 
tion; for  so  many  humors,  so  many  sects,  so  many 
judgments,  opinions,  laws,  and  customs,  teach  us  to 
judge  right  of  our  own,  and  inform  our  understand- 
ings to  discover  their  imperfections  and  natural  in- 
firmity, which  is  no  trivial  speculation." 

In  Montaigne's  writings  we  see  another  advance  in 
education.  The  study  of  books  and  the  world  was  to 
teach  the  student  to  think.  Montaigne's  theories 
were  afterwards  elaborated  upon  by  Locke  and  Rous- 
seau. 

FRANCIS  BACON:     1561-1626 

Bacon  was  born  in  London  in  1561.  He  received 
his  education  at  the  University  of  Cambridge,  Paris, 
and  by  private  instruction.  He  became  a  lawyer, 
and  in  a  short  time  he  became  recognized  as  a  man  of 
marked  ability.  During  the  reign  of  James  I  he 
arose  to  positions  of  honor  and  influence.  In  1618 
he  was  appointed  to  the  eminent  position  of  Lord 
High  Chancellor. 


86  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

Bacon  ma}^  well  be  called  the  father  of  modern 
scientific  education.  In  his  writings  he  condemns  the 
humanistic  studies  of  his  time  which  suppressed  re- 
search and  investigation. 

His  greatest  work,  the  "  Novum  Organiim,''  which 
was  published  in  1620,  set  forth  his  principles  of  edu- 
cation and  philosophy.  His  whole  work  is  practical 
and  quite  modern  in  tone.  He  objects  to  religion 
and  the  classics  occupying  the  front  rank  in  educa- 
tion. Bacon  criticised  the  educational  standards  of 
his  time  as  too  formal.  He  urged  students  to  investi- 
gate and  carry  on  successful  research  work  in  Na- 
ture. He  stated  that  investigation  was  essential  to 
true  scientific  education.  For  example,  he  wrote: 
"  It  would,  indeed,  be  dishonorable  to  mankind  if  the 
regions  of  the  material  globe,  the  earth,  the  sea,  and 
the  stars,  should  be  so  prodigiously  developed  and 
illustrated  in  our  age,  and  yet  the  boundaries  of  the 
intellectual  globe  should  be  confined  to  the  narrow 
discoveries  of  the  ancients." 

In  general,  the  Baconian  philosophy  is  set  forth  by 
the  following  aphorism :  "  There  are  two  ways  of 
searching  after  and  discovering  truth ;  the  one,  from 
sense  and  particulars,  rises  directly  to  the  most  gen- 
eral axioms,  and  resting  upon  these  principles  and 
their  unshaken  truth,  finds  out  intermediate  axioms, 
and  this  is  the  method  in  use;  but  the  other  raises 
axioms  from  sense  and  particulars  by  a  continued 
and  gradual  ascent,  till  at  last  it  arrives  at  the  most 
general  axioms,  which  is  the  true  way,  but  hitherto 
untried." 

Scholastic  speculation  has  no  place  in  Bacon's  edu- 
cational program.     He  upholds  the  method  of  indue- 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  87 

tion  which  has  become  the  basis  of  scientific  educa- 
tion. 

JOHN  MILTON:    1608-1674 

John  Milton,  poet,  writer,  and  educator,  was  born 
in  London  in  1608.  The  writer  of  "  Paradise  Lost  " 
was  vitally  and  deeply  interested  in  education.  His 
definition  of  education  is  broad  and  comprehensive: 
"  I  call,  therefore,  a  complete  and  generous  education 
that  which  fits  a  man  to  perform  justly,  skillfully, 
and  magnanimously  all  the  offices,  both  private  and 
public,  of  peace  and  war." 

He  is  an  earnest  educational  reformer  in  as  much 
as  he  raises  his  will  in  protest  against  the  educa- 
tional concept  of  the  age  which  required  pupils  of 
tender  years  to  compose  verses  and  essays  in  Latin 
and  Greek.  He  claimed  that  these  tasks  belonged  to 
students  of  mature  minds.  He  also  criticised  the 
methods  of  universities  in  teaching  young  students 
upon  their  entrance  logic  and  metaphysics. 

Milton  offered  a  solution  of  the  educational  prob- 
lem of  his  day  by  proposing  a  scheme  of  study  which 
was  so  vast  and  comprehensive  as  to  enumerate  al- 
most every  known  subject  in  science  and  literature. 

WOLFGANG  RATICH:     1571-1635 

In  the  large  number  of  educational  reforms  pro- 
posed by  Ratich,  we  find  not  simply  the  ideas  of  a 
theorist,  but  the  principles  of  a  practical  educator 
set  forth.  He  was  born  at  Wilster,  in  Holstein, 
ITS'!.  He  received  his  education  at  the  Hamburg 
Gymnasium  and  the  University  of  Rostock. 

After  many  years  of  study  and  effort  he  prepared 


88  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

a  course  of  study  which,  in  a  memorial  addressed  to 
the  Electoral  Diet  at  Frankfort  in  1612,  he  urged 
that  body  to  adopt.  His  views  set  forth  plans 
whereby  all  language  could  be  learned  in  a  shorter 
time  than  by  the  methods  then  in  vogue.  He  also 
stated  that  his  plan  properly  carried  out  would 
foster  the  maintenance  of  language,  government,  and 
religion  uniformly  administered. 

A  committee  was  appointed  to  investigate  his  pro- 
gram and  reported  favorably.  The  report  stated  in 
part :  "  Ratich  has  discovered  the  art  of  teaching 
according  to  nature.  By  this  method  languages  will 
be  quickly  learned,  so  that  we  shall  have  time  for 
science;  and  science  will  be  learned  even  better  still, 
as  the  natural  system  suits  best  with  science,  which  is 
the  study  of  nature." 

Eventually,  after  many  failures,  in  1619,  under 
the  patronage  of  Prince  Ludwig  of  Anhalt-Kothen, 
Ratich  was  enabled  to  establish  a  model  school  at 
Kothen.  He  established  his  own  printing  house  for 
the  publication  of  his  text-books.  The  teachers  were 
specially  instructed  in  the  use  of  his  methods.  The 
school  was  opened  with  an  enrollment  of  two  hundred 
and  thirty-one  boys  and  two  hundred  and  two  girls. 

The  school  from  its  incipiency  seemed  to  have  a 
bright  future  before  it,  but  various  causes  brought 
about  its  failure.  Ratich  in  many  ways  displeased 
his  friends  and  patrons.  Kothen  was  strongly  Cal- 
vinistic,  and  Ratich,  who  was  Lutheran,  was  uncom- 
promising in  his  views  and  made  many  bitter  enemies. 
The  bitter  criticism  which  arose  handicapped  his 
work  and  crippled  the  school.  He  was  also  over- 
confident in  the  promises  that  he  made  in  expecting 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  89 

his  system  to  accomplish  too  much.  The  chmax  was 
reached  when  he  quarreled  with  his  chief  patron,  the 
prince,  which  resulted  in  the  closing  of  the  school. 
He  tried  to  establish  his  school  elsewhere,  but  with- 
out success,  the  outbreak  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War 
hampering  him  in  his  efforts. 

Ratich's  ideas  and  methods  formed  valuable  con- 
tributions to  education.  He  was  a  pioneer  among 
educational  reformers  who  advocated  the  importance 
of  the  study  of  the  language  of  one's  own  country. 
His  theories  in  many  respects  have  been  adopted  in 
the  educational  methods  of  the  present  time. 

JOHN  AMOS  COMENIUS:     1592-1671 

Comenius,  the  son  of  a  Moravian  miller,  was  born 
at  Mionic  in  1592.  He  received  his  education  in  sev- 
eral German  towns,  but  particularly  at  Herborn  in 
Nassau.  In  1616  he  became  a  minister  of  the  Mora- 
vian faith  and  was  installed  pastor  of  the  church  in 
Fulneck.  Here  he  also  took  charge  of  a  school  and 
became  deeply  interested  in  education.  He  greatly 
enjoyed  his  work,  but  his  happy  life  in  Fulneck  was 
brought  to  an  end.  Fulneck  was  captured  by  the 
Spaniards  in  1621 ;  and  persecution  arising,  Com- 
enius was  compelled  to  leave  his  native  country. 
Thus  began  a  sad  story  in  his  life ;  from  this  time  on 
he  became  a  wanderer  and  exile  in  various  places  on 
the  continent.  However,  he  carried  on  his  educa- 
tional labors  wherever  the  opportunity  presented  it- 
self. 

From  1650  to  1654  Comenius  labored  in  a  school 
at  Saros-Patok.  It  was  here  that  he  wrote  his  great 
work  on  education,  "  Orbis  Pictures."     In  a   short 


90  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

time  it  became  a  popular  text-book  of  the  schools  of 
Europe.  The  title-page  of  the  work  stated  that  it 
contained  "  the  pictures  and  names  of  all  the  princi- 
pal things  in  the  world,  and  of  all  the  principal  occu- 
pations of  man." 

Each  lesson  was  carefully  and  clearly  explained, 
and  a  picture  illustrated  the  subject  of  the  lesson. 
Comenius  thereby  sought  to  have  the  pupil  get  a 
true  comprehension  of  each  lesson.  His  plan  of  edu- 
cation was  comprehensive;  the  vernacular  and  Latin 
were  used.  The  schools  were, — infancy;  kindergar- 
ten ;  vernacular  school  from  six  to  twelve  years,  when 
among  the  subjects  studied  were  geometry,  history, 
music,  geography,  religion,  etc. ;  Latin  school,  which 
taught  the  liberal  arts  and  philosophy;  university 
and  research  school  or  college. 

Without  a  doubt  Comenius  was  the  most  celebrated 
educational  reformer  of  the  seventeenth  century. 
He  was  a  prolific  author,  having  written  one  hundred 
and  twenty-seven  essays  and  books.  His  program 
included  a  thoroughly  organized  school  system  based 
upon  consistent  educational  methods.  His  schools 
were  established  in  Germany,  England,  and  Sweden. 

He  did  much  to  advance  the  cause  of  education 
along  scientific  lines.  He  advocated  a  careful  study 
and  investigation  of  nature  as  the  ideal  of  educa- 
tional development. 

"  Why  shall  we  not,"  he  says,  "  instead  of  dead 
books,  open  the  living  book  of  nature?  "  Quick  well 
says,  "  Before  Comenius  no  one  had  brought  the  mind 
of  a  philosopher  to  bear  practically  on  the  subject 
of  education.  Montaigne  and  Bacon  had  advanced 
principles,  leaving  others  to  see  to  their  application. 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  91 

A  few  able  schoolmasters,  Ascham,  e.g.,  had  investi- 
gated new  nictliods,  but  had  made  success  in  teaching 
the  text  to  wliich  thej  appealed  rather  than  any  ab- 
stract principle.  Comenius  was  at  once  a  philoso- 
pher who  had  learnt  of  Bacon,  and  a  schoolmaster  who 
had  earned  his  livelihood  by  teaching  the  rudiments. 
Dissatisfied  with  the  state  of  education  as  he  found 
it,  he  sought  for  a  better  system  by  an  examination  of 
the  laws  of  nature."  ^ 

JOHN  LOCKE:     1632-1704 

Locke  was  born  near  Bristol  in  1632.  He  received 
his  educational  training  at  Westminster  School  and 
Oxford  University.  Later  he  studied  medicine.  As 
a  tutor  in  the  Earl  of  Shaftesbury's  family  he  became 
particularly  interested  in  education.  Here  the 
foundations  for  his  epoch-making  views  w^ere  laid. 
In  1689  he  wrote  his  celebrated  work,  "  An  Essay 
Concerning  Human  Understanding,"  and  in  1693 
he  published  another  important  treatise,  ''  Some 
Thoughts  Concerning  Education." 

Locke  claimed  that  the  function  of  education  was 
not  to  give  mere  book  knowledge  but  to  equip  men  for 
the  affairs  of  practical  life.  The  foundation  of  edu- 
cation was  not  to  be  based  on  the  study  of  Latin  and 
Greek,  but  on  religion.  Virtue  was  the  first  endow- 
ment that  belonged  to  every  man.  He  says,  "  As  the 
foundation  of  this,  there  ought  very  early  to  be  im- 
printed on  his  mind  a  true  notion  of  God,  as  of  the 
independent  Supreme  Being,  Author  and  Maker  of 
all  things,  from  whom  we  receive  all  our  good,  who 
loves  us,  and  gives  us  all  things;  and  consequent  to 

1  Quick:     Educational   Reformees,   page    134. 


92  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

this,  instill  into  him  a  love  and  reverence  of  this  Su- 
preme Being." 

There  is  also  an  advance  made  by  Locke  in  his  views 
on  physical  education.  He  laid  down  several  prac- 
tical rules  governing  the  health  of  the  body  and 
stated  the  importance  of  observing  them. 

He  sounded  a  new  note  in  child  nurture.  He 
pointed  out  the  folly  of  trying  to  educate  children  in 
any  mechanical  way.  The  child  nature  was  to  be 
carefully  studied  and  observed,  and  in  that  way  each 
child  would  be  properly  trained.  By  this  method  the 
child's  personality  would  be  developed,  and  since  his 
training  was  to  be  along  practical  lines,  it  would 
bring  his  natural  abilities  up  to  the  highest  point  of 
efficiency,  thereby  enabling  him  to  a  better  discharge 
of  his  duties  to  the  world. 

The  ideal  which  Locke  had  in  view,  in  brief,  was 
not  scholastic  training  but  efficiency  for  practical 
life.  Or  as  Quick  writes,  "  In  everything  the  part 
the  pupil  was  to  play  in  life  was  steadily  to  be  kept 
in  view ;  and  the  ideal  which  Locke  proposed  was  not 
the  finished  scholar,  but  the  finished  gentleman." 

Locke  represents  the  reactionary  movement  in  edu- 
cation which  overthrows  authority  of  the  past.  He 
emphasizes  the  philosophic  side  of  education  more 
than  the  scientific.  His  writings  show  an  advance 
movement  in  pedagogical  thought,  particularly  in  the 
importance  of  child  study  and  the  value  of  the  proper 
development  of  individuality. 

AUGUST  FRANCKE:     1663-1727 

Under  the  leadership  of  Spener  at  Frankfort-on- 
the-Main  in  1670,  a  movement  was  started  to  increase 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  93 

the  religious  knowledge  and  promote  evangelical  piety 
among  the  people.  Spener  held  meetings  for  tliis 
purpose  at  his  home,  Dresden,  and  Berlin.  He 
recognized  the  existence  of  formalism  and  abstract 
orthodoxy  in  the  religious  life  of  Germany.  To 
counteract  this  state  of  affairs  Spener  started  this 
work  of  reform.  The  critics  of  the  movement  in  de- 
rision gave  it  the  name  of  Pietism.  However,  out  of 
the  discussion  and  controversy  which  was  aroused, 
Protestantism  and  religious  pedagogy  were  materi- 
ally benefited. 

The  Pietistic  movement  was  advanced  along  edu- 
cational lines  particularly  by  Francke.  He  w  as  born 
at  Lubeck  in  1663.  He  received  his  education  at 
Gotha,  Erfurt,  and  Kiel.  He  was  a  lecturer  at  Leip- 
sic  in  1684  on  the  Old  and  New  Testaments.  His 
lectures  were  attended  by  many  students.  It  was 
here  he  became  an  advocate  of  the  Pietistic  movement. 
In  1692  he  was  appointed  Professor  of  Greek  and 
Oriental  Languages  at  the  University  of  Halle.  In 
connection  with  his  university  work  he  also  served  as 
pastor  of  one  of  the  local  churches.  His  pastoral 
work  brought  him  in  contact  with  all  classes  of  peo- 
ple, and  he  was  astonished  to  find  so  much  ignorance 
existing  among  them,  particularly  in  religious  mat- 
ters. To  alleviate  these  conditions  Francke  started 
a  school  in  a  very  humble  way.  He  laid  stress  espe- 
cially on  religious  instructions.  The  school  eventu- 
ally grew  to  great  proportions.  His  school  em- 
braced the  following  departments: 

(1)  The  Pedagogium,  the  highest,  in  which  was 
taught  religion,  Greek,  Hebrew,  etc. 


94j  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

(2)  Orphanage,  a  home  and  school  for  younger 
boys  and  girls. 

(3)  Burgher  school,  equivalent  to  a  well  organized 
primary  school. 

(4)  Free  table,  drug  and  book-store  and  home  for 
women,  established  for  the  needy,  indigent,  and  de- 
pendent. 

At  the  time  of  Francke's  death  the  total  enrollment, 
including  teachers,  pupils,  and  others,  numbered  four 
thousand,  two  hundred  and  seventy-three. 

His  work  at  the  university,  school,  and  church  re- 
quired prodigious  efforts.  He  was  a  man  of  deep 
personal  piety  and  sincerity.  He  advanced  the 
method  of  teaching  theology  by  applying  its  prin- 
ciples to  heart  and  head  alike. 

Francke  advanced  the  science  of  education  in 
theory  and  practice.  He  emphasized  the  importance 
of  giving  true  instruction  to  the  children.  The 
child's  future  is  to  be  borne  in  mind  continually  by 
the  teacher  so  that  the  instruction  given  may  be  the 
most  helpful  and  practical.  Religious  instruction  re- 
ceived the  first  consideration,  and  then  other  indis- 
pensable studies  were  used.  His  rules  in  discipline 
underlie,  in  large  measure,  the  methods  in  vogue  to- 
day. His  plan  eliminated  harshness  and  extreme 
rigorous  punishment,  but  provided  for  correction  by 
gaining  the  love  and  confidence  of  the  children 
through  gentleness,  affection,  and  solicitude. 

JEAN  JACQUES   ROUSSEAU:     1712-1778 

In  the  early  years  of  the  eighteenth  century  a  new 
movement  arose  in  education  which  manifested  itself 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  95 

according  to  two  tendencies, —  the  realistic  and 
Immanistic.  However,  tlie  advocates  of  these  ten- 
dencies were  united  in  declaring  that  revealed  religion 
had  no  place  in  education. 

The  greatest  advocate  of  this  movement  was  Rous- 
seau. He  belonged  to  the  realist  school.  He  advo- 
cated education  from  the  viewpoint  of  nature  study. 
He  was  born  at  Geneva  in  1712.  In  his  early  boy- 
hood days  he  was  fond  of  reading,  and  a  large  num- 
ber of  the  works  were  utterly  worthless.  His  life 
was  full  of  contradictions,  not  one  which  we  would 
want  to  emulate.  However,  his  principles  of  educa- 
tion have  found  in  large  measure  a  permanent  place 
in  that  science. 

His  most  celebrated  work  on  education  bears  the 
title  of  "  Emile."  In  it  Rouseau  shows  himself  to  be 
an  iconoclast  with  respect  to  existing  religious  and 
educational  concepts.  He  advocates  five  periods  of 
development:  (1)  infancy;  (2)  early  boyhood;  (3) 
from  the  twelfth  to  the  fifteenth  year;  (4)  up  to  his 
twentieth;  (5)  the  marriage  period.  In  other  words, 
education  begins  w^ith  early  infancy  and  extends  to 
maturity. 

He  urges  a  careful  study  of  child-nature,  but  child 
training  is  to  be  largely  physical  development.  The 
training  of  the  intellect  was  to  begin  with  the  twelfth 
year.  His  plan  was  to  develop  manhood  in  its  com- 
pletest  sense.  He  says,  "  In  the  order  of  nature  all 
men  are  equal,  their  common  vocation  is  the  estate  of 
man;  and  whoever  is  well  brought  up  for  that  will 
not  fail  in  anything  belonging  to  it.  It  is  a  matter 
of  little  importance  to  me  whether  my  pupil  be  des- 
tined for  arms,  for  the  church,  or  for  the  bar.     Be- 


96  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

fore  the  vocation  assigned  him  by  his  parents,  Na- 
ture calls  him  to  human  life.  To  live  is  the  business 
I  wish  to  teach  him." 

His  theories  are  very  suggestive,  and  his  principles 
have  given  new  views  on  education,  but  on  the  whole 
their  applications  are  impossible.  He  gave  new 
views  and  new  impetus  to  child  study,  and  these 
theories  after  all  constitute  his  chief  contribution  to 
the  science  of  education. 

JOHN  BASEDOW:     1723-1790 

Basedow  was  born  in  Hornburg  in  1723.  He  pur- 
sued a  theological  course  at  the  University  of  Leip- 
sic,  but  his  unorthodox  views  kept  him  from  the 
ministry.  Then  he  turned  to  educational  work.  He 
wrote  a  number  of  treatises  on  education.  However, 
Basedow  is  best  known  as  the  founder  of  the  Philan- 
thropin.  It  was  founded  at  Dessau  in  1776.  The 
Philanthropin  grew  out  of  the  general  dissatisfaction 
with  the  schools  at  the  time.  Basedow  was  largely 
governed  in  his  plans  and  views  by  Rousseau's 
"  Emile."  The  general  idea  of  his  system  was  every- 
thing according  to  nature.  He  claimed  that  all  chil- 
dren were  to  be  educated  according  to  their  natural 
inclinations.  The  child  nature  was  not  to  be  re- 
pressed, but  through  play  each  one  was  to  be  edu- 
cated. Pictures,  objects,  minerals,  trades,  history, 
and  commerce  were  all  to  be  utilized.  French  and 
Latin  were  to  be  taught  by  conversation.  With  re- 
spect to  religion,  only  natural  religion  was  to  be 
taught. 

The  Philanthropin  became  a  well  known  institution 
and  received  favorable  comment  from  many  compe- 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  97 

tent  visitors,  but  it  failed  to  accomplish  all  that 
Basedow  had  promised.  He  possessed  little  execu- 
tive ability  and  was  not  fitted  to  be  the  head  of  the 
school,  and  in  a  comparatively  short  time  resigned. 
The  Philanthropin  was  finally  closed  in  1793.  How- 
ever, his  experiment  and  methods  were  by  no  means 
useless.  Many  of  his  theories  have  formed  the  basis 
for  kindergarten  and  primary  work  of  the  present 
time. 

JOHANN  ERNESTI:     1707-1781 

We  have  already  alluded  to  the  humanistic 
tendency  of  the  educational  movement  of  the  eight- 
eenth century.  The  humanists  were  strongly  op- 
posed to  the  methods  enunciated  by  Rousseau  and 
his  followers  of  the  realistic  school.  The  humanists 
laid  great  stress  upon  the  importance  of  the  study  of 
Latin  and  Greek,  not  only  as  a  source  of  culture, 
but  on  account  of  their  practical  value.  They  said 
Latin  and  Greek  w^ere  the  sources  of  culture  inasmuch 
as  the  source  documents  of  philosophy,  law,  medicine, 
history,  etc.  were  first  written  in  these  languages. 

One  of  the  representatives  of  this  humanistic  move- 
ment was  Ernesti,  who  was  born  at  Tennstadt  in 
Thuringia,  August  4,  1707.  He  was  educated  at  the 
Universities  of  Wittenberg  and  Leipsic.  In  1742  he 
was  appointed  Extraordinary  Professor  of  Ancient 
Literature  at  Leipsic  and  in  1756  advanced  to  the 
professorship  of  rhetoric.  His  profound  scholarship 
was  everywhere  recognized.  His  greatest  work  con- 
sisted in  paving  the  way  for  a  revolution  in  dogmatic 
theology  by  disengaging  it  from  the  scholastic  and 
mystical  tendencies  which  had  deformed  it. 


98  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

JOHN  HENRY  PESTALOZZI:     1746-1827 

The  opening  of  the  nineteenth  century  marks  the 
beginning  of  a  new  epoch  in  education.  Efforts  were 
being  put  forth  to  place  popular  education  on  a  more 
scientific  basis.  The  importance  of  developing  ele- 
mentary education  had  come  to  be  realized,  and  the 
educators  of  this  century  were  actively  engaged  in 
advancing  it.  The  psychological  tendency  which 
also  arose  during  this  period  emphasized  the  impor- 
tance of  individual  child  study.  Consequently  a  new 
interest  in  child  study  arose,  which  manifested  itself 
along  practical  and  sympathetic  lines. 

One  of  the  reformers  who  helped  to  advance  the 
cause  of  new  education  was  Pestalozzi,  who  was  born 
at  Zurich,  January  12,  1746.  Undoubtedly  he  was 
the  greatest  educational  reformer  since  the  day  of 
the  Reformation.  At  the  age  of  six  years  he  lost  his 
father;  he  grew  up  under  the  fostering  care  of  a 
pious  and  excellent  mother.  In  his  early  school  days 
he  did  not  make  noteworthy  progress  in  his  studies, 
and  his  fellow  students  often  made  him  the  object  of 
their  sport  and  fun.  However,  his  good  nature  and 
unselfishness  won  him  the  friendship  of  many.  More- 
over, his  university  student  days  were  marked  by 
strong  scholarship. 

Later  he  entered  the  ministry ;  afterwards  he  be- 
came a  lawyer,  farmer,  author,  and  teacher.  How- 
ever, in  all  of  his  work  he  was  impracticable,  injudi- 
cious, and  he  permitted  his  sympathies  to  overbalance 
sound  judgment. 

In  1775  he  founded  a  school  at  Newhof  where  he 
taught  fifty  children,  but  his  mismanagement  involved 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  99 

him  heavily  in  debt  and  resulted  in  closing  his  school. 
Then  followed  a  long  gloomy  period  in  his  life, —  a 
period  of  almost  twenty  years  filled  with  despondency 
and  poverty.  However,  Pestalozzi  was  not  a  man 
to  waste  his  time.  This  became  the  construction 
period  of  his  life,  during  which  he  wrote  many  vol- 
umes embodying  his  theories  and  methods  of  teach- 
ing. His  most  notable  work,  consisting  of  four 
volumes,  was  "  Leonard  and  Gertrude,"  which  was  a 
sympathetic  study  of  Swiss  peasant  life.  Later  he 
wrote  another  very  important  work,  "  How  Gertrude 
Teaches  Her  Children,"  which  set  forth  the  practical 
side  of  his  educational  theories.  He  goes  to  the 
very  foundation  of  educational  ideas.  He  said, 
"  The  essential  principle  of  education  is  not  teach- 
ing, it  is  love." 

In  1804  he  established  a  normal  school  at  Yoerdun 
which  soon  acquired  a  world-wide  reputation.  In 
time  teachers  trained  in  accordance  with  Pestaloz- 
zian  ideas  were  in  demand  from  all  the  educational 
centers  of  Europe.  This  great  school  received  from 
scholars  and  rulers  alike  the  commendation  which  it 
merited.  As  the  school  grew  and  developed,  Pesta- 
lozzi was  unequal  to  the  task  of  management.  Dis- 
sensions arose  among  the  teaching  force  which  re- 
sulted in  closing  the  school.  It  seemed  to  Pestalozzi 
that  his  life  work  was  a  failure. 

We  cannot  read  his  biography  without  a  sense  of 
sympathy  going  out  from  our  hearts  to  the  noble 
and  unselfish  character  of  this  good  man.  However, 
his  life  was  not  a  failure.  His  life  work  produced  a 
great  revolution  along  instructive  methods  in  edu- 
cation. 


100  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

Some  of  his  principles  deserve  our  attention.  The 
early  years  from  seven  to  twelve,  he  claimed,  were  the 
most  important.  He  said,  "  The  child  accustomed 
from  his  earliest  years  to  pray,  to  think,  and  to  work, 
is  already  more  than  half-educated."  Education  be- 
comes a  developing  process,  proceeding  from  the 
simple  to  the  complex.  He  taught  that  observation 
was  an  essential  factor.  The  common  objects  of 
life  were  used  as  the  basis  of  instruction.  Accord- 
ing to  his  theory,  the  emphasis  of  all  intellectual 
training  was  to  be  put  first  on  the  side  of  moral  and 
religious  instruction,  which  he  considered  to  be  identi- 
cal. 

It  is  impossible  to  measure  the  extent  of  Pesta- 
lozzi's  influence  on  education,  which  in  every  respect 
has  been  profound.  His  work  was  continued  by  his 
pupils,  Herbart  and  Froebel. 

FRIEDRICH  FROEBEL:     1783-185^ 

Froebel,  the  son  of  a  Lutheran  clergyman,  was 
born  in  Thuringia  in  1782.  At  a  tender  age  he 
lost  his  mother,  and  his  early  life  and  education  were 
considerably  neglected.  Later,  he  attended  a  cou- 
ple of  courses  of  lectures  at  the  universities  of  Jena 
and  Gottingen.  He  was  deeply  interested  in  the 
study  of  nature,  and  he  longed  to  come  to  the  knowl- 
edge of  nature's  application  as  found  in  her  uni- 
versal laws. 

His  thinking  and  studying  led  him  to  be  deeply 
interested  in  the  science  of  education.  Finally 
through  the  persuasion  of  a  friend  he  was  induced 
to  enter  the  teaching  profession.     In  1826  he  pub- 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  101 

llshed  his  notable  work  on  "  The  Education  of  Man," 
in  which  he  sets  forth  particularly  the  education  of 
children. 

His  theories  and  observation  concerning  the  edu- 
cation of  children  led  him  to  open  the  first  kinder- 
garten at  Blankenburg,  in  1837.  He  was  the  first 
educator  to  take  into  account  the  "  formative  and 
creative  instinct  "  of  child  life.  He  recognized  that 
the  child  would  not  only  take  in  as  the  intellectual 
development  went  on,  but  the  active  normal  child 
would  also  give  out.  Consequently  he  paid  great  at- 
tention to  child  activity.  He  held  that  the  child 
properly  trained  and  developed  in  the  earlier  stage 
would  be  w^hat  he  should  be  in  his  later  life. 

Froebel  provided  for  the  child's  restlessness,  and 
in  order  to  direct  it  into  the  proper  channel  he  in- 
vented a  course  of  games.  The  system  of  games  he 
called  gifts,  so  that  in  their  usage  the  children  would 
develop  the  power  of  doing,  inventing,  and  creating. 
In  writing  of  his  system  Quick  says,  "  The  children's 
employment  is  to  be  play.  But  any  occupation  in 
which  children  engage  is  play  to  them ;  and  Froebel's 
series  of  employment,  while  they  are  in  this  sense 
play  to  the  children,  have  nevertheless,  as  seen  from 
the  adult  point  of  view,  a  distinctly  educational  ob- 
ject." 1 

Froebel's  theories  have  contributed  in  large  meas- 
ure in  advancing  the  study  of  the  child  to  a  more 
scientific  basis.      His  ideas  have  formed  the  basis  of 
kindergarten  work  of  the  present  time. 
1  Quick:    Educational   Reformers,  page  409. 


102  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

JEAN  FREDERIC  HERBART:     1776-1841 

Herbart  was  born  at  Oldenburg,  May  4,  1776. 
He  was  educated  at  the  Universities  of  Jena  and 
Gottingen.  Before  his  thirtieth  year  he  had  formu- 
lated certain  themes  in  education  which  he  after- 
wards elaborated  and  developed.  In  his  "  Outline 
of  Pedagogical  Lectures,"  which  was  published  in 
1835,  his  ideas  and  theories  were  enlarged. 

He  sought  to  establish  a  system  of  metaphysics, 
psychology,  logic,  aesthetics,  and  ethics  in  which 
everything  is  interdependent  and  connected.  He  de- 
veloped the  psychological  theories  of  Locke,  Rous-' 
seau,  and  Pestalozzi.  He  rejected  the  old  ideas  with 
respect  to  the  psychological  faculties  of  the  soul. 
Compayre  writes,  "  The  point  of  departure  of  the 
psychological  conception  of  Herbart  is  that  there 
are  no  faculties  in  the  soul.  This  must  be  accepted 
in  its  strictest  sense.  Herbart  does  not  admit  in 
the  mind  any  original  force,  any  native  energy. 
Others  had  dismissed  to  the  land  of  dreams  the  old 
machinery  of  innate  ideas ;  Herbart  went  farther, — 
he  rejected  not  only  ideas  but  innate  faculties."  ^ 

The  mind  is  inherently  neither  good  nor  bad,  but 
it  develops  one  way  or  another,  due  to  outside  or 
external  influences.  The  higher  education  is  to  be 
the  governing  force  which  is  to  give  definite  shape 
to  character.  These  thoughts  are  the  chief  charac- 
teristics of  the  Herbartian  tendency. 

Herbart  had  an  ideal  which  embraced  the  whole 
of  humanity.  He  saw  in  the  future  a  better  hu- 
manity which  would  be  accomplished  by  education. 

1  Compayre:  Herbart  and  Education  by  Instruction, 
page   19. 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  103 

Herbart  believed  that  the  principles  of  education 
could  be  effectively  applied  only  bj'  instruction.  He 
held  that  instruction  is  the  largest  part  of  educa- 
tion. With  respect  to  this  faith  Herbart  was  be- 
fore his  time.  The  educational  world  is  divided  to- 
day over  the  Herbartian  conception.  However,  we 
agree  with  Compayre,  "  He  will  be  proved  more  and 
more  right  in  the  future,  because  progress  hence- 
forth is  bound  up  with  an  increasing  spread  of  in- 
struction and  with  the  development  of  science." 

HERBERT  SPENCER:     1820-1903 

With  Herbart  the  psychological  tendency  in  edu- 
cation was  given  new  impulse,  and  under  Herbert 
Spencer's  guidance  the  sociological  side  was  empha- 
sized. He  recognized  the  importance  of  scientific 
studies  in  educational  development,  but  he  believed 
the  social  factor  to  be  more  important. 

His  educational  writings  treated  of  a  variety  of 
subjects  as  follows:  (1)  physiology,  (2)  economics, 
(3)  rearing  of  offspring,  (4)  political  and  social  life, 
(5)  aesthetics.  His  viewpoint  of  education  was  that 
culture  should  not  be  limited  to  the  few,  but  should 
be  for  the  many. 

Spencer  developed  and  elaborated  many  of  the 
theories  set  forth  by  Pestalozzi.  For  example,  he 
carried  out  the  idea  that  education  is  a  progressive 
development  from  the  simple  to  the  complex.  He 
also  upheld  the  Baconian  method  of  induction. 

He  has  shown  his  viewpoint  of  education  to  be 
broad  and  comprehensive.  What  will  be  his  perma- 
nent contributions  toward  the  advancement  of  the 
cause  of  education,  only  time  can  tell. 


CHAPTER  V 

HISTORY  OF  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION: 
THE  LATER  PERIOD  (Concluded) 

The  Raikes  Movement  —  American  Sunday 
Schools  —  Conventions,  In^stitutes,  and  Assemblies 
—  The  Lessons. 

THE  SUNDAY  SCHOOL  MOVEMENT 

The  various  educational  movements  which  we  have 
briefly  traced  historically,  contributed  in  many  ways 
to  advance  the  cause  of  religious  education  of  chil- 
dren and  young  people  in  general,  and  particularly 
in  laying  the  foundations  of  the  Sunday  School. 

THE  RAIKES  MOVEMENT 

Robert  Raikes  was  a  prosperous  and  well-to-do 
newspaper  publisher  and  editor  of  Gloucester,  Eng- 
land. The  city  was  a  great  center  of  the  pin  indus- 
try, in  which  child  labor  was  largely  employed. 
During  the  week  children  and  adults  were  busy  with 
their  work,  but  on  Sunday  when  they  were  free  they 
turned  it  into  a  day  of  drinking  and  sporting. 
Harris  writes,  "  Bull  baiting,  bear  baiting,  badger 
baiting,  cock  fighting,  dog  fighting,  running,  and 
wrestling  were  the  principal  pastimes." 

Raikes  knew  of  these  conditions,  and  in  order  to 

alleviate  the   social    conditions   and   to   provide   the 

104 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  105 

children  with  specific  religious  instruction,  he  decided 
to  gather  the  children  together  to  have  them  taught. 
From  this  plan  developed  the  modern  Sunday  School. 

The  first  school  seems  to  have  been  started  in  the 
home  of  Mr.  King,  July,  1780,  and  Mrs.  King  was 
one  of  four  women  employed  as  teachers  at  the  rate 
of  one  shilling  per  Sunday.  Mr.  Raikes  in  a  letter 
to  a  friend  described  the  Sabbath  School  work  as  fol- 
lows :  "  The  children  were  to  come  soon  after  ten  in 
the  morning,  and  stay  till  twelve;  they  were  then  to 
go  home  and  stay  till  one ;  and  after  reading  a  lesson 
they  were  to  be  conducted  to  church.  After  church 
they  were  to  be  employed  in  repeating  the  catechism 
till  half  past  five  and  then  to  be  dismissed  with  an 
injunction  to  go  home  without  making  a  noise,  and 
by  no  means  to  play  in  the  street." 

Mr.  Raikes  also  enlisted  the  services  of  the  Rev. 
Thomas  Stock  in  his  work,  and  he  heartily  cooper- 
ated in  visiting  the  schools  on  a  Sunday  afternoon 
to  examine  the  progress  made  and  to  see  that  order 
prevailed  among  the  children. 

The  movement  started  by  Mr.  Raikes  was  not  a 
new  one  by  any  means,  as  schools  of  a  similar  char- 
acter existed  in  the  church  at  least  fourteen  cen- 
turies previous.  They  met  with  success  in  a  greater 
or  less  degree  in  the  dissemination  of  religious  truth. 
In  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  Sunday 
Schools  were  established  at  the  following  places : 
In  Bath,  England,  1665;  Roxbury,  Massachusetts, 
1674;  Norwich,  Connecticut,  1676;  Plymouth,  Mas- 
sachusetts, 1680;  Newton,  Long  Island,  1683;  Berks 
and  Montgomery  Counties,  Pennsylvania  (by  the 
Schwenkfelders),     1734;     Ephrata,     Pennsylvania, 


106  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

1740;  Bethlehem,  Connecticut,  1740;  Philadelphia, 
Pennsylvania,  1744;  Norham,  Scotland,  1757; 
Brechin,  Scotland,  1760;  Catterick,  England,  1763; 
Columbia,  Connecticut,  1763;  Bedale,  England, 
1765;  Doogh,  Antrim  County,  Ireland,  1770;  Bright, 
Dum  County,  Ireland,  1774;  Mansfield,  England, 
1778. 

However,  it  remained  for  Mr.  Raikes  to  give  new 
impetus  to  the  movement  whereby  it  became  a  large 
part  of  the  religious  life  of  all  denominations.  The 
founder  was  a  consistent  member  of  the  Church  of 
England,  but  the  movement  in  its  incipiency  was  not 
the  result  of  churchly  authorization,  but  of  individual 
responsibility.  It  was  considerably  later  that  the 
schools  came  under  the  fostering  care  of  the  church. 
For  a  period  of  three  years  Mr.  Raikes  tested  his 
experiment  of  Bible  School  training  before  he  sought 
to  give  it  world-wide  publicity. 

As  was  stated,  he  was  a  prominent  newspaper  pub- 
lisher of  Gloucester  and  the  editor  of  The  Journal. 
In  the  columns  of  his  paper  he  gave  publicity  to  the 
movement,  showing  its  successful  development  and 
laying  stress  upon  the  thought  in  the  opportunity 
thus  presented  of  giving  religious  instruction  to  the 
young.     In  an  editorial  he  writes: 

"  Some  of  the  clergy  in  different  parts  of  this 
country,  bent  upon  attempting  a  reform  among  the 
children  of  the  lower  class,  are  establishing  Sunday 
Schools  for  rendering  the  Lord's  Day  subservient  to 
the  ends  of  instruction,  which  has  hitherto  been  pros- 
tituted to  bad  purposes.  Farmers  and  other  inhabi- 
tants of  the  towns  and  villages  complain  that  they 
receive  more  injury  to  their  property  on  the  Sab- 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  107 

bath  than  all  the  week  besides ;  this,  in  a  great  meas- 
ure, proceeds  from  the  lawless  state  of  the  younger 
class,  who  are  allowed  to  run  wild  on  that  day,  free 
from  every  restraint.  To  remedy  this  evil,  persons 
duly  qualified  are  employed  to  instruct  those  that 
cannot  read;  and  those  that  may  have  learnt  to 
read  are  taught  the  Catechism  and  conducted  to 
church.  In  those  parishes  where  the  plan  has  been 
adopted,  we  are  assured  that  the  behavior  of  the 
children  is  greatly  civilized.  The  barbarous  igno- 
rance in  which  they  had  before  lived  being  in  some 
degree  dispelled,  they  begin  to  give  proofs  that  those 
persons  are  mistaken  who  consider  the  lower  orders 
of  mankind  incapable  of  improvement,  and  therefore 
think  and  attempt  to  reclaim  them  impracticable,  or 
at  least'  not  worth  the  trouble."  ^ 

The  movement  was  given  additional  impulse  and 
publicity  when  the  Gentleman's  Magazine^  sl  London 
monthly  magazine  of  great  influence,  published  in 
June,  1784,  Mr.  Raikes'  letter  to  Colonel  Townley, 
of  Sheffield.  After  telling  of  the  inception  of  the 
School  movement,  he  also  writes : 

"  As  my  profession  is  that  of  a  printer,  I  have 
printed  a  little  book  which  I  gave  amongst  them; 
and  some  friends  of  mine,  subscribers  to  the  Society 
for  Promoting  Christian  Knowledge,  sometimes  make 
me  a  present  of  a  parcel  of  Bibles,  Testaments,  etc., 
which  I  distribute  as  rewards  to  the  deserving.  The 
success  that  has  attended  this  scheme  has  induced 
one  or  two  of  my  friends  to  adopt  the  plan  and  set 
up  Sunday  Schools  in  other  parts  of  the  city,  and 

1  Harris:     Robert     Raikes,     The     Man     and     His     Work, 
page  62. 


108  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

now  a  whole  parish  has  taken  up  the  object;  so  that 
I  flatter  myself  in  time  the  good  effects  will  appear 
so  conspicuous  as  to  become  generally  adopted. 
The  number  of  children  at  present  thus  engaged  on 
the  Sabbath  are  between  two  and  three  hundred,  and 
they  are  increasing  every  week,  as  the  benefit  is  uni- 
versally seen."  ^ 

Thus  the  foundations  were  firmly  laid  and  the 
growth,  though  slow  at  first,  pointed  to  the  future 
when  the  movement  would  become  world-wide  in  its 
usefulness.  Mr.  Raikes  enlisted  the  following  influ- 
ential people  of  the  time  in  his  cause, —  John  and 
Charles  Wesley,  Whitefield,  the  Bishops  of  Norwich, 
Salisbury,  Llandaff,  the  Earls  of  Ducie  and  of  Salis- 
bury, John  Newton,  William  Cowper,  William  Fox, 
and  others.  Through  the  instrumentality  of  Fox, 
on  September  7,  1785,  the  General  Sunday  School 
Society  for  the  promotion  of  the  work  was  organized, 
with  headquarters  at  London.  The  queen  learned 
of  the  great  good  the  schools  were  accomplishing, 
and  in  an  interview  with  the  queen,  Mr.  Raikes  told 
of  the  work.  Concerning  this  interview  he  wrote  to 
the  Rev.  Heckens  thus:  "Her  Majesty  most  gra- 
ciously said  that  she  envied  those  who  had  the  power 
of  doing  good  by  thus  personally  promoting  the 
welfare  of  society,  in  giving  instruction  and  morality 
to  the  general  mass  of  the  common  people ;  a  pleasure 
from  which,  by  her  situation,  she  was  debarred."  ^ 

There  were  many  who  opposed  the  work  of  Mr. 
Raikes.     The   Archbishop   of   Canterbury   made   an 

1  Harris :  Robert  Raikes,  T^he  Man  and  His  Work, 
page  308. 

2  Gregory:     Robert  Raikes,  page  95. 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  109 

effort  through  his  bishops  to  stop  it,  but  without 
success.  It  was  also  opposed  for  some  time  in  Scot- 
land. However,  the  Sunday  Schools  had  many 
friends  who  defended  the  movement  by  voice  and  pen. 
The  opposition  aroused  greater  interest  in  the 
schools,  and  as  a  consequence  they  began  to  be  or- 
ganized and  grow  more  rapidly.  Every  great  re- 
form and  constructive  work  has  always  had  enemies, 
but  their  worth  has  outlived  all  opposition.  Thus 
the  Sunday  Schools  have  grown  and  increased  and 
have  become  inseparably  identified  with  the  church 
in  the  world-wide  mission. 

"  In  short,  it  is  evident  that  the  great  religious 
decline  of  the  eighteenth  century  was  consequent  on 
a  lack  of  the  divinely  designated  church  school 
agency  for  the  winning  and  training  of  the  young, 
and  that  the  great  religious  advance  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  is  consequent  upon  a  revival  and  ex- 
pansion of  that  agency,  with  its  legitimate  influence 
and  outcome.  To  the  reintroduction  of  that  fea- 
ture into  the  Protestant  church  polity  we  are,  under 
God,  the  chief  measure  of  whatever,  in  our  religious 
life  and  methods  of  work,  make  and  mark  this  cen- 
tury ...  as  superior  to  the  centuries  which  it  fol- 
lows." 1 

AMERICAN  SUNDAY  SCHOOLS 

At  the  close  of  the  Revolution  the  church  of  the 
young  republic  was  in  a  disorganized  and  chaotic 
state.  However,  the  leaders  were  not  discouraged, 
nor  did  they  lose  hope  for  the  future.  The  work  of 
reorganization  went  on  slowly,  and  the  foundations 

1  Trumbull:     The  Sunday  School,  page  120. 


110  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

of  church  work  for  the  future  were  firmly  and  deeply 
laid.  Coincident  with  the  work,  the  need  of  more 
adequate  religious  education  for  the  children  and 
young  people  was  clearly  recognized. 

In  order  to  foster  and  develop  the  cause  of  reli- 
gious instruction,  Bishop  White  and  others  organ- 
ized the  First  Day  Society  in  Philadelphia,  1790. 
The  Bishop,  on  a  previous  visit  to  England,  had 
made  a  careful  study  of  the  Raikes  Sunday  Schools, 
and  those  organized  by  the  Society  in  Philadelphia 
and  its  vicinity  were  modeled  after  them.  The  effort 
was  made  particularly  to  give  instructions  to  those 
children  who  did  not  attend  the  regular  church  serv- 
ice. The  teachers  who  were  employed  were,  on  the 
whole,  the  day-school  masters,  and  were  paid  for 
their  services.     In  time  this  plan  was  given  up. 

In  1790  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Conference  of 
Charleston,  South  Carolina,  recommended  that  Sun- 
day Schools  be  established  for  whites  and  negroes. 
The  Conference  advised  the  appointment  of  teachers 
who  would  do  the  work  gratuitously.  For  almost 
twenty-five  years  the  Sunday  School  work  was  crip- 
pled and  handicapped  by  the  persistent  opposition 
of  many  church  leaders  and  organizations.  The  op- 
position claimed  that  the  establishment  and  organiza- 
tion of  schools  endangered  the  calling  and  usefulness 
of  the  ministerial  office  by  the  employment  of  lay- 
teachers.  However,  the  close  of  the  War  of  1812 
marked  a  new  epoch  in  the  development  of  the  church 
and  nation.  All  religious  denominations  took  on  a 
new  lease  of  life.  This  was  especially  true  with  re- 
spect to  the  Sunday  School  movement.  The  various 
denominations    officially    recognized    the    place    and 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  111 

sphere  of  the  schools  and  ineorporated  them  in  their 
organization.  American  denominations  saw  the 
great  results  accomplished  by  the  incorporation  of 
the  Raikes  schools  into  the  English  Church,  and  fol- 
lowed the  actions  of  the  old  mother  country. 

After  the  War  of  1812  the  growth  of  the  various 
societies  and  organizations  to  help  the  Sunday  School 
movement  was  quite  rapid.  In  1816,  in  New  York, 
the  Female  Union  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Sun- 
day Schools  was  organized.  Soon  afterward  the 
New  York  Union  was  formed  to  organize  schools  for 
boys.  In  1817  the  Philadelphia  Sunday  and  Adult 
Society  was  incorporated.  "  Incorporated  by  char- 
ter in  1819,  it  was  primarily  designed  to  be  a  state 
society,  but  it  soon  outgrew  the  original  intentions 
of  its  projectors  and  took  in  Sunday  School  socie- 
ties and  local  unions  In  many  other  states  besides 
Pennsylvania.  At  the  time  of  its  incorporation, 
after  a  little  more  than  two  years'  progress,  it  con- 
sisted of  227  unions  or  societies,  2,653  teachers  and 
nearly  20,000  scholars,  representing  eleven  states 
and  one  territory."  ^ 

The  American  Sunday  School  Union  was  formed 
in  1824  to  carry  on  interdenominational  work  in  the 
interests  of  Sunday  School  work  in  the  United  States 
and  Canada.  The  Sunday  and  Adult  Society  was 
united  with  the  Union  with  headquarters  at  Philadel- 
phia. The  Union  employed  a  large  number  of  mis- 
sionaries and  agents  who  cooperated  with  all  denomi- 
nations in  the  establishment  of  schools,  and  they  took 
the  initiative  in  organizing  schools  in  places  where 

1  Michael:     The  Sunday  School  of  the  Americak  Church, 
page  70. 


112  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

the  churches  could  not  begin  them.  After  1815  in 
New  England  and  1816  in  New  Jersey,  the  schools 
grew  and  spread  rapidly.  Thus  the  work  steadily 
progressed  throughout  the  United  States  until  the 
beginning  of  the  Civil  War.  After  the  war  renewed 
interest  was  manifested.  The  different  church  de- 
nominations took  active  steps  to  foster  greater  inter- 
est and  activity  on  behalf  of  the  schools  connected 
with  their  church  organizations.  This  was  shown 
particularly  in  the  publication  of  a  vast  amount  of 
Sunday  School  literature.  Gradually  the  work  of 
organization  developed  so  that  to-day  all  denomina- 
tions are  thoroughly  organized  for  the  prosecution 
of  Sunday  School  work,  which  has  come  to  be  recog- 
nized as  the  right  arm  of  the  church  work. 

The  International  Sunday  Schools  Association 
which  was  organized  in  1872  was  the  outgrowth  of 
the  National  Convention  held  in  Indianapolis  in  1872. 
The  International  Association  takes  in  all  of  North 
America.  The  state,  county,  city,  and  district  asso- 
ciations of  the  United  States  belong  to  this  organ- 
ization. The  World's  Association  includes  all  na- 
tional and  international  Sunday  School  associations 
of  the  world. 

CONVENTIONS,  INSTITUTES,  AND  ASSEMBLIES 

The  great  help  to  be  received  from  conferences  on 
Sunday  School  work  was  early  recognized  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  schools  of  the  United  States.  Many  local 
conventions  were  held  prior  to  1830.  Haslett  states, 
"  In  1832  the  first  national  Sunday  School  conven- 
tion was  held  in  New  York  City.  At  this  convention 
220  delegates  were  present  from  fourteen  states  and 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  113 

territories.  National  conventions  were  held  at  Phila- 
delphia in  1833  and  in  1859,  at  Newark  in  1869,  and 
in  Indianapolis  in  1872."  ^ 

It  was  at  the  latter  convention  that  the  Interna- 
tional Uniform  Lesson  System  was  adopted.  After 
1872  no  more  National  Conventions  were  held,  but 
they  were  superseded  by  the  International  Associa- 
tion conventions,  which  are  held  triennially.  These 
conventions  have  been  held  at  the  following  places: 
1875  in  Baltimore;  1899,  Atlanta;  1902,  Denver; 
1905,  Toronto;  1908,  Louisville;  1911,  San  Fran- 
cisco; 1914',  Chicago.  The  following  is  a  complete 
list  of  World's  Conventions:  London,  England, 
1889;  St.  Louis,  U.  S.  A.,  1893;  London,  England, 
1898;  Jerusalem,  Pal.,  1901^;  Rome,  Italy,  1907; 
Washington,  U.  S.  A.,  1910;  Zurich,  Switzerland, 
1913. 

For  a  number  of  years  many  summer  assemblies, 
chautauquas,  and  conferences  have  been  held  at  con- 
venient centers  for  the  discussion  of  methods,  Bible 
study,  religious  instruction,  etc.  Many  of  the  larger 
denominations  have  also  instituted  similar  confer- 
ences and  institutes  at  which  their  own  problems  are 
discussed  and  instruction  given,  usually  by  competent 
leaders  and  lecturers  of  their  own. 

The  keynote  to-day  is  greater  efficiency  in  Sun- 
day School  work  along  all  lines,  but  particular  em- 
phasis is  laid  on  the  educational  side.  The  present 
tendency  in  great  conventions  and  conferences  is  to 
get  away  from  considering  these  vital  questions  in 
the  midst  of  a  great  mass  of  people,  perhaps  num- 
bering thousands,  and  to  divide  the  convention  into 
1  Haslett:     The  Pedagogical  Bible  School,  page  45. 


114  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

sectional  institutes  where  the  problem  may  be  con- 
sidered more  carefully  and  beneficially.  Formerly 
the  conventions  begot  great  enthusiasm,  but  the  ac- 
complishment of  real  serious  educational  work  was  a 
negligible  quantity.  At  these  conferences  or  insti- 
tutes, courses  under  the  guidance  of  trained  teachers 
are  offered  in  teacher  training,  church  history,  mis- 
sions, doctrines,  Bible  history,  child  psychology,  etc. 
Almost  all  of  the  denominational  publication  houses 
have  also  published  text-books  for  their  people  who 
desire  to  pursue  courses  on  teacher  training.  Many 
schools,  colleges,  etc.,  have  also  instituted  courses  for 
teacher  training,  superintendents,  pastor's  assistants, 
etc.  The  present  tendency  is  greater  efficiency  along 
educational  lines,  and  the  church  and  Sunday  School 
of  to-morrow  will  reap  greater  benefits  in  their  work. 

THE  LESSONS 

In  the  earliest  Sunday  Schools  reading  and  writing  i 
were  taught  in  addition  to  religious  subjects.  The 
majority  of  the  children  came  from  the  destitute 
classes,  which  made  this  instruction  necessary.  The 
Sunday  School  revolutionized  the  English  school  sys- 
tem, and  out  of  it  came  the  modem  elementary 
schools. 

The  English  Church  Catechism  was  the  principal 
book  studied.  The  lessons  in  the  Catechism  and 
numerous  Bible  texts  were  memorized.  The  memori- 
ter  work  was  carried  to  extremes,  and  the  folly  of  it 
was  later  seen  and  much  of  it  came  to  be  eliminated. 

About  1825  the  instruction  gradually  reached  a 
more  systematic  form.  One  year  later  the  American 
Sunday  School  Union  published  a  series  of  uniform 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  115 

lessons.  Later  the  Sunday  School  Union  of  London 
issued  lesson  series  with  brief  notes  and  comments  to 
guide  the  pupil. 

In  1865  the  Rev.  J.  H.  Vincent  issued  a  new  series 
of  lessons.  After  a  number  of  changes  were  insti- 
tuted the  lessons  appeared  in  1866  under  the  cap- 
tion :  "  Two  Years  With  Jesus ;  A  New  System  of 
Sunday  School  Study."  Each  yesir  covered  a  course 
of  twenty-four  lessons.  The  first  year's  study  was 
devoted  to  the  life,  journeys,  and  miracles  of  Jesus. 
The  second  included  the  parables,  conversations,  and 
discourses  of  Jesus.  A  golden  text  was  chosen  for 
each  lesson,  which  was  expected  to  be  memorized. 
The  lessons  were  used  in  a  large  number  of  schools. 

As  time  went  on  the  need  of  more  uniform  lessons 
became  more  apparent.  Finally,  at  the  National 
Convention  held  in  Indianapolis  in  1872,  the  subject 
was  carefully  considered,  and  a  committee  was  ap- 
pointed to  arrange  a  series  of  lessons  covering  the 
whole  Bible  and  to  extend  over  a  period  of  seven 
years.  The  course  proposed  by  the  committee  was 
published  and  was  used  by  many  schools  from  the 
beginning.  This  series  marked  the  beginning  of  the 
International  Lessons. 


CHAPTER  VI 

PRINCIPLES  OF  PSYCHOLOGY 

Definition  —  Body  and  Mind  —  The  Brain  —  The 
Nerves  —  The  Stream  of  Thought  —  Attention  — 
Knowing y  Feelvng,  and  Willing  —  Perception  —  Con- 
ception —  Memory  and  Imagination  —  Habit  and 
Judgment  —  Apperception  —  Psychology  and  Reli- 
gious Education. 

DEFINITION 

Psychology  is  frequently  defined  as  the  science  of 
the  soul.  This  definition  is  comprehensive,  but  is 
lacking  in  explicitness.  Psychology  has  to  do  with 
the  mind  and  soul,  which  investigators  in  our  psycho- 
logical laboratories  to-day  agree  are  one  and  the 
same.  Many  who  claim  that  psychology  is  the  sci- 
ence of  the  soul  speak  of  the  soul  as  thinking,  feel- 
ing, and  acting;  but  these  same  states  apply  to  the 
mind  as  well.  It  is  not  sufficient  to  limit  the  defini- 
tion to  the  states  of  the  soul,  for  to  do  so  fails  to 
comprehend  the  unity  of  soul  with  mind,  and  as  such 
it  is  to  be  treated. 

Psychologists  have  much  to  say  about  thoughts, 
feelings,  and  acts,  but  about  the  thing  itself  which 
thinks,  feels,  and  acts,  they  know  nothing.  In  order 
to  grasp  the  definition  of  psychology  from  the  view- 
point of  the  unity  of  the  mind,  it  is  not  only  necessary 

116 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  117 

to  understand  it  in  the  light  of  the  will,  thinking,  feel- 
ing, and  acting,  but  all  the  experiences  of  the  soul 
must  be  taken  into  consideration. 

Dr.  Gordy,  therefore,  gives  the  following  clear-cut 
and  comprehensive  definition  of  psychology  as  "  the 
science  of  the  experiences,  phenomena,  or  facts  of  the 
mind,  soul,  or  self  —  of  mental  facts,  in  a  word."  ^ 
He  writes  further  concerning  mental  fact  as  "  a  fact 
known  or  knowable  to  but  one  person  directly,  and 
that  the  person  experiencing  it ;  and  psychology  is  the 
science  of  mental  facts,  or  the  science  of  the  facts  of 
mind." 

BODY  AND  MIND 

Experience  and  study  show  there  is  a  very  close 
relationship  between  body  and  mind.  There  is  an  old 
adage  which  says  that  "  a  sound  mind  exists  only  in  a 
sound  body."  Education  to-day  lays  stress  upon  the 
fulfillment  of  this  truth.  A  few  simple  illustrations 
will  suffice  to  show  the  relationship  between  body  and 
mind.  A  certain  young  man  who  was  ambitious  to 
get  a  college  education  worked  at  hard  manual  labor 
during  the  day  and  attended  college  classes  at  night, 
but  he  was  so  mentally  exhausted  from  physical  ef- 
fort that  it  was  with  extreme  difficulty  that  he  per- 
formed his  tasks.  We  know  a  professional  man  who 
occupied  a  sphere  of  large  usefulness  and  influence  in 
a  certain  community,  but  he  lost  it,  and  destroyed 
his  normal  use  of  bodily  and  mental  functions  as  well, 
because  he  was  addicted  to  the  use  of  a  certain  drug. 
At  first  he  used  it  to  stimulate  his  mental  powers ; 
later  he  became  a  slave  to  the  habit.     Common  daily 

1  Gordy :     New  Psychology,  pages  69  and  70. 


118  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

experiences  of  life  testify  to  the  intimate  relationship 
of  body  and  mind. 

THE  BRAIN 

Investigations  by  physiologists  and  psychologists 
show  that  the  brain  is  the  organ  of  the  mind  and  par- 
ticular parts  of  the  brain  are  the  "  localization  of 
mental  functions."  In  other  words,  certain  portions 
of  the  brain  are  closely  connected  with  particular 
mental  activities. 

It  will  be  interesting  to  compare  the  weight  and  size 
of  the  brain  of  animals  with  man's.  The  brain  of  a 
matured  whale  weighs  about  five  pounds,  an  elephant's 
brain  weighs  the  five-hundredth  part  of  the  weight  of 
its  body  and  a  man's,  about  one-thirty-sixth  part  of 
his  own  weight.  The  average  weight  of  man's  brain 
is  forty-eight  ounces  and  that  of  woman  forty-four 
ounces.  The  human  brain  is  divided  into  three  princi- 
pal parts:  the  cerebrum,  the  cerebellum,  and  the 
medulla  oblongata. 

The  cerebrum,  in  man,  is  the  larger  division  of  the 
brain,  weighs  several  pounds,  and  occupies  the  an- 
terior portion  of  the  skull.  It  functionates  thought, 
feeling,  emotion,  will,  and  intelligence.  If  the  cere- 
brum is  removed,  there  may  be  activity  and  movement, 
but  consciousness  is  lacking. 

The  cerebellum,  which  is  sometimes  known  as  the 
little  brain  and  weighs  only  a  few  ounces,  is  located  in 
front  of  and  above  the  medulla  oblongata.  The 
tentorium  separates  it  from  the  cerebrum.  The  cere- 
bellum functionates  in  the  entire  control  of  muscular 
action. 

The  medulla  oblongata  connects  the  brain  with  the 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  119 

spinal  cord.  It  is  the  center  of  the  muscles  which 
produce  articulate  speech,  facial  expression,  respir- 
ation, and  other  functions. 

THE  NERVES 

We  have  mentioned  the  close  relationship  which  ex- 
ists between  the  body  and  the  brain.  This  is  shown 
by  an  illustration  which  will  bring  out  facts  about  the 
nerves  which  we  wish  to  discuss  briefly.  Suppose  you 
are  pricked  by  a  pin.  The  sharp  point  touches  a 
nerve  which  causes  pain,  and  immediatel}'  your  hand  is 
directed  to  the  spot  and  you  remove  the  pin.  How 
did  you  know  where  to  find  the  place  of  pain!  The 
moment  the  point  of  the  pin  pricked  the  nerve,  the  dis- 
turbance caused  thereby  was  carried  to  the  brain  by 
the  nervous  system  at  the  rate  of  thirty  feet  per  sec- 
ond. Reaching  the  brain,  a  certain  amount  of  force 
is  generated  which  sets  the  will  in  motion  and  flows 
along  the  nerves  to  the  muscles  and  directs  them  to  re- 
move the  pin. 

If  one  were  to  dissect  an  animal  of  the  mammalia 
type, —  the  cat,  for  example, —  one  would  find  many 
white  cords,  large  and  small;  some  you  could  trace 
with  the  naked  eye,  others  are  so  minute  that  they 
could  be  seen  only  under  a  powerful  microscope, — 
these  are  the  nerves.  The  unit  of  the  nervous  system 
is  the  nerve  cell,  of  which  it  is  estimated  there  are 
about  three  thousand  million  in  man's  entire  central 
nervous  system. 

The  nerves  are  divided  into  two  classes :  the  afferent 
and  efferent  nerves.  Dr.  Gordy  summarizes  these 
classes  as  follows :  the  first  class  connect  some  sensi- 
tive structure,  as  the  skin,  the  retina,  the  nervous 


120  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

membrane  of  the  stomach,  at  their  peripheral  termina- 
tion, with  the  center ;  the  second  connect  the  center 
with  the  muscles  to  which  they  are  attached  at  their 
peripheral  termination. 

The  first  class  are  excited  to  activity  by  some  struc- 
ture at  their  peripheral  termination  and  transmit 
nervous  action  to  the  center.  They  are,  therefore, 
called  afferent,  incarrying,  or  centripetal  nerves. 
The  second  class  are  excited  to  activity  by  the  nerve 
centers  with  which  they  are  connected,  and  transmit 
nervous  excitation  to  the  muscles  with  which  they  are 
connected  at  their  peripheral  extremity.  They  are, 
therefore,  called  efferent,  out-carrying,  centrifugal, 
or  motor  nerves. 

THE   STREAM  OF  THOUGHT 

We  are  indebted  to  Professor  James  for  this  strik- 
ing phrase.  He  likens  thought  to  a  stream  wherein, 
as  it  moves  along  in  the  realm  of  consciousness,  one 
idea  nov/  predominates  and  then  another.  As  these 
ideas  come  along,  the  mind  is  able  to  focus  itself  on 
whatever  idea  it  chooses. 

According  to  Dr.  James  there  are  five  character- 
istics in  thought. 

(1)  Every  thought  tends  to  be  part  of  a  personal 
consciousness.  In  other  words,  each  individual 
thought  is  a  personal  thought.  It  is  to  be  denomi- 
nated as  my  thought,  as  belonging  to  me  personally. 

(2)  Within  each  personal  consciousness  thought 
is  always  changing.  That  is,  we  may  recall  thought 
along  the  same  line  as  we  had  thought  of  it  previously, 
but  thought  as  recalled  will  not  be  the  same  as  in  the 
former  state.     The  thought  has  changed. 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  121 

(3)  Within  each  personal  consciousness  thought  is 
sensibly  continuous.  We  may  be  asleep,  but  thought 
in  our  sub-conscious  self  continues.  As  long  as  con- 
sciousness lasts  the  stream  of  thought  continues. 

(4)  It  always  appears  to  deal  with  objects  inde- 
pendent of  itself;  that  is,  it  is  cognitive,  or  possesses 
the  function  of  knowing.  Concerning  this  point 
James  further  says :  *'  A  mind  which  has  become 
conscious  of  its  own  cognitive  function,  plays  what  we 
have  called  *  the  psychologist '  upon  itself.  It  not 
only  knows  the  things  that  appear  before  it ;  it  knows 
that  it  knows  them.  This  stage  of  reflective  condi- 
tion is,  more  or  less  explicitly,  our  habitual  adult 
state  of  mind." 

(5)  It  is  interested  in  some  parts  of  these  objects 
to  the  exclusion  of  others,  and  welcomes  or  rejects 
—  chooses  from  among  them,  in  a  word  —  all  the 
while. 

"  The  importance  of  mind  impressions  to  us  vary. 
Upon  some  of  these  objects  we  place  more  attention 
than  others.  Experience  shows  that  strict  and  care- 
ful attention  can  only  be  given  to  one  object  at  a 
time."  1 

ATTENTION 

We  have  noted  that  in  the  discussion  of  the  stream 
of  consciousness  our  mental  experiences  are  continu- 
ally changing  and  directing  our  attention  to  one  ex- 
perience and  then  to  another.  The  question  arises, 
What  is  attention.'^  Attention  is  the  concentration  of 
consciousness  as  applied  to  any  subject  or  object. 
Dr.  Gordy  defines  it  as  "  that  act  of  the  mind  by 

1  James:     Psychology,   Vol.   I,  pages   224-290. 


122  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

which  we  bring  into  clear  consciousness  any  subject  or 
object  before  the  mind."  ^ 

Dr.  Royce  states :  "  Attention  is  a  process  that 
involves  states  of  mind  and  physical  activities  which 
tend  to  satisfy  such  an  intellectual  interest,  or  is  the 
process  of  furthering  our  current  interest  in  an  ex- 
perience when  viewed  just  as  an  experience."  ^ 

There  are  two  kinds  of  attention,  which  Dr.  Gordy 
designates  as  involuntary  and  voluntary,  which  Dr. 
Royce  calls  passive  and  active,  but  which  we  prefer  to 
term  spontaneous  and  compulsory.  By  spontaneous 
attention  is  meant  when  the  mind  centers  itself  readily 
and  without  effort  upon  the  idea  or  object.  By  com- 
pulsory attention  the  will  must  whip  the  mind  into 
condition,  so  to  speak,  to  center  or  to  focus  itself 
upon  the  idea  or  object.  So  important  is  attention 
that  education  cannot  be  had  without  it.  It  is  the 
foundation  of  secular  and  religious  education. 

Perception  is  dependent  upon  attention.  Day 
after  day  an  individual  may  pass  a  number  of  houses 
on  the  street  in  which  he  lives  without  noticing  their 
form  of  architecture,  color,  the  shades  of  window 
blinds,  etc.  If  he  makes  up  his  mind  that  he  will 
notice  something  new  about  those  houses  each  day,  he 
will  be  surprised  to  note  how  many  things  he  has  not 
previously  observed.  Why?  He  has  not  perceived 
those  things  because  his  mind  has  not  attended  to 
them. 

Memory  is  dependent  upon  attention.  We  realize 
the  importance  of  this  fact  when  we  read  or  look  hur- 
riedly and  carelessly,  and  when  we  are  vitally  inter- 

1  Gordy:     New  Psychology,  page  111. 

2  Royce:    Outlines  of  Psychology,  page  1. 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  123 

ested  and  attend  to  our  reading.  In  the  former 
case  what  we  read  is  forgotten  ahnost  the  moment 
that  we  have  finished  it ;  in  the  latter  case  we  remem- 
ber the  substance  of  what  we  have  read,  because  we 
attended  to  it  and  it  was  stamped  upon  our  mem- 
ory. 

The  power  of  reasoning  is  dependent  upon  atten- 
tion. Take  a  little  child  for  example.  He  learns  to 
reason  by  experience,  and  this  comes  about  through 
attention.  Watch  him  at  play  building  a  house  with 
his  blocks.  If  the  house  falls  down  because  he  placed 
a  block  in  the  wrong  position,  the  next  time  he  builds 
it  up  he  will  try  to  avoid  his  previous  mistake,  and  he 
will  attend  to  it  very  carefully,  lest  he  fail.  He  de- 
velops his  reasoning  powers  by  attention. 

Feeling  is  dependent  upon  attention.  An  indi- 
vidual is  sometimes  met  who  seems  to  be  lacking  in 
feeling.  For  example,  he  cannot  sympathize,  because 
he  cannot  attend.  The  word  sympathy  seems  to 
mean  very  little  to  him,  because  his  experiences  have 
been  foreign  to  it.  This  is  indeed  possible  where  an 
individual  has  been  indifferent  to  this  feeling.  To 
be  sympathetic  likewise  depends  upon  attending  to  it 
and  developing  it.  The  same  is  true  of  all  feelings. 
Thus  it  is  seen  that  attention  plays  a  vital  part  in 
our  mental  experiences.  The  importance  of  care- 
fully training  the  mind  to  properly  concentrate  itself 
is  at  once  sepn  and  realized.  This  is  the  basis  of  true 
education. 

KNOWING,  FEELING,  AND  WILLING 

These  three  states  of  the  mind  we  are  experiencing 
continually.     We    are    invariably    knowing,    feeling, 


1^4  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

and  willing  at  the  same  time.  However,  we  cannot 
know,  feel,  or  will  distinctly  at  the  same  time. 

For  example,  a  Bible  School  teacher  cannot  expect 
his  pupils  to  know  very  much  about  the  truths  to  be 
learned  from  the  lesson  when  the  boys  have  discussed 
base-ball  prior  to  the  study  of  the  lesson.  Their 
minds  are  full  of  the  sport,  and  they  are  unable  to 
concentrate  them  on  the  study  of  the  lesson.  They 
have  indulged  themselves  in  the  feeling  of  pleasure, 
and  their  minds  are  handicapped  for  the  study  period 
—  to  know  intensively. 

Again,  when  a  man  becomes  mad  with  anger  so  that 
he  loses  control  of  his  temper,  and  his  feelings  are  in- 
tense, and  he  does  and  says  things  which  he  would  not 
do  in  his  normal  condition,  we  see  that  his  mind  is  not 
under  the  control  of  his  will,  but  he  does  these  things 
because  his  feelings  are  intense. 

Illustrations  could  be  multiplied,  but  these  are  suf- 
ficient to  show  what  we  mean  when  we  state  that  we 
cannot  know,  feel,  or  will  intensely  at  the  same 
time. 

PERCEPTION 

Dr.  Gordy  has  aptly  written,  "  All  knowledge  takes 
its  rise  in  sensation."  This  idea  underlies  the  defini- 
tion of  perception  as  given  by  Dr.  James :  "  The 
consciousness  of  particular  material  things  present 
to  sense  is  nowadays  called  perception."  ^ 

To  illustrate, —  in  order  to  apprehend  an  apple  by 
the  eye,  the  sensations  of  color,  taste,  touch,  smell, 
etc.,  are  grouped  together.  This  involves  the  work  of 
the  mind.     It  is  perception.     In  order  to  reach  this 

1  James:     Psychology,   Vol.   IT,   page   "76. 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  125 

perception,  the  mind  went  through  a  series  of  proc- 
esses (summarizing  the  idea  of  Dr.  Gordy)  ;  it  was 
conscious  of  a  distinctive,  definite  sensation ;  it 
grouped  this  sensation  with  the  recollection  of  sensa- 
tions already  experienced;  and  it  thought  of  these 
sensations  as  qualities  of  objects  having  a  more  or 
less  definite  position  in  space. 

CONCEPTION 

The  young  child  receives  impressions  on  his  mind, 
but  at  first  he  is  unable  to  interpret  these  perceptions. 
However,  gradually  he  comes  to  note  the  difference 
between  loud  and  soft  tones,  heat  and  cold,  disagree- 
able and  agreeable  tastes,  etc.  In  time  these  things 
make  an  impression  on  his  senses,  and  eventually  he  is 
able  to  distinguish  each  as  a  particular  impression. 
As  consciousness  develops  he  is  able  to  determine  and 
classify  the  products  of  his  senses,  such  as  persons, 
animals,  plants,  etc. 

The  child  does  not  have  true  and  genuine  con- 
ceptions until  that  state  of  consciousness  has  been 
reached  whereby  he  is  able  to  distinguish  individuals 
of  the  same  class.  For  example,  a  little  boy  calls  his 
father  "  papa,"  and  every  time  he  sees  him  he  calls 
him  "  papa,"  but  that  same  boy  also  calls  every  man 
who  talks  to  him  or  comes  close  to  him,  "  papa." 
That  child  does  not  have  a  proper  concept  of  his 
father  as  an  individual  compared  with  other  meft. 
Not  until  a  higher  state  of  consciousness  has  been 
reached  will  that  child  have  a  concept  of  his  "  papa  " 
as  a  man  different  from  other  men.  When  that  time 
comes  he  will  cease  calling  other  men  "  papa,"  because 
by  comparison  with  his  concept  of  "  papa," —  a  man 


lae  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

—  he  will  have  the  conception  that  other  men  are  dis- 
tinctive men,  but  not  his  "  papa." 

Thus  may  be  seen  what  important  parts  percep- 
tion and  conception  play  in  our  mental  experiences. 
One  of  the  great  problems  of  education  is  the  utiliza- 
tion of  these  experiences  by  each  pupil  for  the  cre- 
ation of  the  right  kind  of  world  in  which  to  live. 
Each  child  must  be  taught  to  properly  observe  things 
in  nature  and  life  as  it  exists  about  us.  We  make  our 
moral  world,  religious  world,  yes,  whatever  kind  of 
world  we  choose.  Thus  we  see  how  necessary  it  is 
for  the  child  to  be  properly  taught  to  look  at  things 
from  the  proper  viewpoint,  in  order  that  his  moral 
and  religious,  etc.,  world  may  be  the  proper  kind ;  and 
that  in  time  he  should  be  placed  on  his  own  responsi- 
bility he  should  be  able  to  put  the  proper  value  on  his 
perception  and  conceptions  and  create  the  proper 
kind  of  world  on  his  own  initiative. 

MEMORY  AND  IMAGINATION 

Memory  is  an  act  of  the  mind  whereby  it  retains 
ideas  and  reproduces  these  impressions  when  neces- 
sary. 

For  memory  to  fully  functionate  it  is  dependent 
upon  five  powers:  (1)  attention,  (2)  retention,  (3) 
reproduction,  (4)  recognition,  and  (5)  localization. 

(1)  Attention.  For  ideas  to  be  deeply  impressed 
on  the  mind  and  to  be  remembered  we  must  give  close 
attention  to  them.  If  one  is  interested  in  the  facts 
one  will  remember  them  the  more  easily. 

(2)  Retention.  After  we  have  attended  to  ideas 
and  impressed  them  on  our  minds,  then  comes  the  next 
step  of  retaining  them.     There  are  some  children  who 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  127 

can  memorize  certain  things,  verses,  etc.,  in  a  short 
time  and  repeat  them  verbatim  without  a  single  omis- 
sion, but  in  a  few  weeks  they  may  have  forgotten  them 
entirely.  There  are  others  who  must  study  hard  and 
long  to  learn  these  same  verses,  but  they  make  a  deep 
impression  on  their  memory,  and  they  are  able  to  re- 
tain them  indefinitely. 

(3)  Reproduction.  This  factor  of  memory  is 
self-explanatory.  It  is  the  power  whereby  we  are 
able  to  reproduce  the  ideas  which  the  memory  has  re- 
tained. 

(4)  Recognition.  After  the  memory  has  recalled 
the  fact,  then  there  must  be  recognition  of  it.  Not  to 
recognize  what  the  memory  has  reproduced  is  rather 
unusual.  An  individual  may  see  the  face  of  a  person 
that  he  knows  very  well,  and  he  will  recognize  him 
immediately. 

(5)  Localization.  By  the  association  of  ideas  we 
are  able  to  recall  similar  ideas  or  experiences.  Thus 
it  is  that  at  times  in  recalling  some  past  experience  a 
similar  experience  is  likewise  recalled  without  recall- 
ing the  time  or  place  where  it  occurred.  By  this  law 
of  association  we  are  able  to  localize  our  experiences 
and  recognize  each  one.  as  taking  place  at  a  definite 
place  and  time.  There  are  some  people  who  have 
difficulty  in  recalling  names  or  sometimes  in  giving 
the  right  name  to  people.  These  same  people  have 
overcome  this  difficulty  by  learning  to  pay  careful  at- 
tention to  the  name  when  they  are  told  it  and  by  asso- 
ciating the  name  with  some  distinctive  trait  of  the 
person  such  as  speech,  complexion,  dress,  etc.  When 
they  meet  that  same  individual  they  will  not  only 
recognize  him,  but  by  the  localization  of  their  recol- 


128  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

lections  they  will  greet  him  by  calling  him  by  his 
name. 

Closely  related  to,  and  dependent  upon,  memory  is 
imagination.  Dr.  Gordy  defines  imagination  as  "  the 
power  of  the  mind  to  form  ideas  of  things  not  pres- 
ent." 

At  a  very  early  age  the  child  will  display  powers  of 
imagination  which  are  based  upon  mental  experiences 
of  memory.  For  example,  a  certain  little  boy,  two 
and  one-half  years  of  age,  was  fond  of  seeing  a  loco- 
motive pull  a  train  of  cars.  At  home  in  his  play  he 
used  his  blocks  to  represent  the  locomotive  and  cars. 
In  testing  him  some  one  would  say,  "  They  are 
blocks,"  "  No,  no,"  he  replied  very  earnestly ;  "  my 
train."  These  blocks  to  him  represented  a  real  loco- 
motive and  train  of  cars. 

The  child  will  also  imagine  things  not  based  upon 
his  experience.  He  imagines  all  kinds  of  things. 
Here  is  seen  the  importance  for  the  student  of  re- 
ligious education,  and  for  the  Bible  School  teacher 
who  has  much  to  do  with  children,  the  importance  of 
making  a  study  of  the  children  under  his  supervision 
to  see  that  they  develop  the  right  kind  of  constructive 
imagination.  It  is  possible  for  children  to  have  the 
most  distorted  ideas  and  conceptions  of  religious 
ideals.  The  constructive  imagination  is  dependent 
upon  the  materials  of  the  reproductive  imagination. 
The  vital  thing  to  do  there  is  by  careful,  simple,  con- 
crete teaching  to  impress  the  child  mind,  by  funda- 
mental truth  and  by  simple  questioning  to  test  the 
constructive  imagination  of  its  development  along 
consistent  lines. 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  129 


HABIT  AND  JUDGMENT 

The  little  child  taking  his  first  step  in  learning  to 
walk  does  so  with  trembling.  In  a  little  while  he 
has  more  confidence  in  himself,  and  he  is  able  to  walk 
a  little  farther.  Gradually  he  has  learned  to  con- 
trol the  muscles  of  his  legs  and  to  take  accurate  steps 
without  the  least  difficulty.  This  is  but  an  illustra- 
tion of  habit,  by  which  we  mean  the  performance  of 
any  mental  or  physical  action  which  is  acquired  by 
frequent  repetition  and  becomes  a  fixed  tendency  in 
one's  nature. 

By  judgment,  quoting  from  Dr.  Gordy,  is  meant 
"  the  mental  assertion  of  some  kind  of  reality  —  the 
transformation  or  relating  of  separate  units  or  ele- 
ments of  thought  into  one  whole,  in  which  each  sus- 
tains definite  and  fixed  relations  to  the  rest."  ^ 

To  illustrate:  a  man  meets  a  gentleman 
who  much  resembles  a  college  classmate  whom  he 
has  not  seen  for  a  decade,  but  the  stranger  is  differ- 
ent enough  in  every  way  so  that  he  is  not  certain. 
However,  looking  at  the  left  hand  and  seeing  that  the 
stranger's  little  finger  is  crooked,  he  recalls  the  fact 
that  his  friend's  finger  was  likewise  crooked,  the  result 
of  a  closely  contested  baseball  game  in  college  days 
which  this  same  man  was  instrumental  in  winning. 
By  associating  all  these  ideas,  he  is  certain  that  his 
judgment  is  correct  and  that  this  is  the  man. 

Habit  in  a  certain  sense  is  the  basis  for  correct 
judgment  in  all  states.  Habit  is  the  resultant  of  a 
well  ordered  and  governed  mind.     It  forms  the  basis 

1  Gordy:     New  Psychology,  page  311. 


130  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

for  correct  and  properly  constituted  judgments. 
When  one's  mentality  is  properly  controlled,  invari- 
ably judgment  will  be  properly  formed.  Thus  defi- 
nite judgment  of  all  kinds  can  only  be  formed  where 
every  point  is  clearly  established  and  identified. 

APPERCEPTION 

By  apperception  we  mean  the  process  whereby  the 
mind  assimilates  new  ideas  already  present  or  exist- 
ing, as  Dr.  James  has  explained  it  in  his  masterly  way 
in  the  following  quotation : 

"  Nothing  is  more  congenial,  from  babyhood  to  the 
end  of  life,  than  to  be  able  to  assimilate  the  new  to  the 
old,  to  meet  each  threatening  violator  or  "  buster  " 
of  our  well-known  series  of  concepts  as  it  comes  in, 
see  through  its  unwontedness,  and  ticket  it  off  as  an 
old  friend  in  disguise.  This  victorious  assimilation 
of  the  new  is  in  fact  the  type  of  all  intellectual  pleas- 
ure. The  lust  for  it  is  curiosity.  The  relation  of 
the  new  to  the  old,  before  the  assimilation  is  per- 
formed, is  wonder.  We  feel  neither  curiosity  nor 
wonder  conceiTiing  things  so  far  beyond  us  that  we 
have  no  concepts  to  refer  them  to  or  standards  by 
which  to  measure  them.  The  Fuegians,  in  Darwin's 
voyage,  wondered  at  the  small  boats,  but  took  the  big 
ship  as  *  a  matter  of  course.'  Only  what  we  partly 
know  already  inspires  us  with  a  desire  to  know 
more."  ^ 

PSYCHOLOGY  AND  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

From  our  discussion  of  the  principles  of  psychol- 
ogy we  have  seen  how  important  a  relation  it  bears  to 

1  James:    Psychology,  Vol.  II,  pages  110  and  111. 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  131 

education.  It  forms  the  basis  of  education.  So  im- 
portant is  it  that  every  Bible  School  teacher  should 
be  thoroughly  grounded  in  its  fundamentals  and  ap- 
ply those  principles  in  teaching. 

The  Bible  School  teacher  with  such  an  ideal  in 
view  will  be  vitally  interested  in  teaching.  He  will 
be  earnest  minded  in  seeking  to  know  the  content  of 
children's  minds.  A  teacher  who,  through  faulty 
preparation  and  lack  of  knowledge  of  psychological 
principles,  may  say  his  pupils  are  "  stupid,"  "  indif- 
ferent," and  "  totally  incapable  of  grasping  truths," 
will,  if  he  is  sincere,  find  the  fault  invariably  lies  with 
himself  rather  than  with  the  pupils.  The  whole  trou- 
ble lies  in  not  knowing  the  content  of  the  child  mind. 

The  advancement  of  the  Kingdom  has  suffered 
too  much  in  the  past  by  faulty  teaching  in  our  Bible 
Schools.  There  is  no  reason  why  pupils  should  feel 
they  have  graduated  from  the  school  when  they  have 
reached  the  "  teen  age."  This  is  the  time  of  life 
when  they  need  religious  teaching  and  when  they 
should  grow  into  that  larger  life  to  render  splendid 
service  to  the  church  and  Bible  School. 

Consecrated  teachers  are  needed,  but  also  those 
who  combine  a  thoroughly  trained  mind  psychologi- 
cally with  consecration.  We  believe  when  teachers 
are  thus  trained,  pupils  can  be  held  by  the  Bible 
School. 

The  mistake  continually  made  in  Bible  School 
teaching  is  that  too  much  is  taken  for  granted  with 
respect  to  children's  knowledge.  Too  often  there  is 
assumption  that  they  know  things  that  they  do  not 
know,  and,  that  they  should  understand  things  con- 
cerning which  they  know  nothing. 


132  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

It  is  not  expected  that  the  Bible  School  teacher  is 
to  be  a  specialist  in  psychological  principles,  but  it  is 
expected  that  each  teacher  knows  the  content  of  the 
child  mind  in  order  that  each  child  may  be  properly 
taught.  Herein  will  be  found  the  success  of  Bible 
School  teaching. 


CHAPTER  VII 

CHILD  DEVELOPMENT 

Comparative  Development  —  Two  Factors  — 
Heredity:  Physical,  intellectual^  and  moral  heredity 
—  Environment. 

COMPARATIVE  DEVELOPMENT 

Dr.  Nathan  Oppenheim  in  his  charming  little  vol- 
ume, "  The  Development  of  the  Child,"  has  two  en- 
lightening chapters  on  the  comparative  development 
of  the  child.  The  facts  we  present  here  are  in  large 
part  a  resume  of  his  views  on  the  comparative  de- 
velopment of  the  child. 

Educational  experience  and  comparative  study  of 
the  child  and  adult  have  led  to  the  adoption  of  the 
principles  that  a  line  of  distinctive  instruction  is  to 
he  followed  in  the  training  of  the  child  quite  differ- 
ent from  that  presented  for  the  mature  mind. 

There  are  many  people,  particularly  parents,  who 
think  their  children  differ  from  themselves  only  in  size 
and  immaturity.  However,  as  Dr.  Oppenheim  shows, 
they  are  alike  only  in  the  most  general  ways.  We 
can  give  only  a  few  brief  facts  in  the  comparative 
development  of  the  child  life,  but  they  will  suffice 
to  illustrate  our  point  sufficiently.  A  resume  of  Dr. 
Oppenheim's  investigations  are  as  follows  : 

For  instance,  one  may  say  that  children  are  more 

supple  than  adults,  but  not  merely  because  they  are 

133 


134  THK  ESSENTIALS  OF 

younger;  it  is  rather  because  they  have  relatively  a 
greater  proportion  of  muscle  tissue  and  a  smaller 
proportion  of  tendons.  Then  there  is  actually  less 
of  the  elements  which  make  the  body  rigid.  A  word 
about  the  head.  In  the  infant  the  breadth  of  the 
skull  in  its  thickest  diameter  equals  or  even  may  ex- 
ceed the  total  height  of  the  skull  and  face,  while  in 
the  adult  it  is  about  three-quarters  of  it.  In  the  eye 
one  finds  about  two-thirds  of  the  growth  accomplished 
in  earliest  infancy.  On  the  other  hand,  the  recessus 
opticus,  a  transverse  groove  leading  to  the  optic 
nerve,  is  more  marked  at  birth  than  in  adult  life. 

In  the  lungs  during  the  first  two  years  of  life,  the 
walls  of  the  alveoli  or  air  spaces  are  thick,  and 
their  blood  vessels  are  loosely  held.  It  is  not  until 
the  fourth  or  fifth  year  that  the  proportionate  adult 
development  between  the  alveoli  and  the  bronchi  be- 
gins to  be  obtained,  and  the  stroma  or  connective  tis- 
sue frame-work  has  become  dense  and  binding,  re- 
straining the  capillaries  as  in  adult  life.  Neverthe- 
less, in  spite  of  the  approximation  towards  adult 
proportions,  the  neighboring  parts  do  not  imme- 
diately fall  into  line.  This  we  see  from  the  fact  that 
the  diaphragm,  situated  just  below  these  structures, 
lies  higher  than  in  the  adults. 

In  children  the  brain  is  large,  but  chemically  it 
contains  a  large  percentage  of  water;  it  is,  there- 
fore, softer  than  in  adult  life,  and  the  specific  gravity 
is  lower.  Its  gray  and  white  substances  differ  very 
little  from  each  other  in  color  and  composition.  And 
not  only  in  the  brain,  but  also  in  almost  all  the  tis- 
sues, there  is  a  marked  difference  between  child  life 
and  adult  age. 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  136 

Educational  reformers  and  scientific  investigators 
have  firmly  established  the  principle  which  clearly 
shows  that  a  distinctive  line  of  training  must  be 
adaptable  to  child  life  in  secular  and  religious  in- 
struction. Home  training  of  the  child  must  likewise 
be  borne  in  mind  in  order  that  the  child  may  be  prop- 
erly instructed. 

TWO  FACTORS 

Dr.  Drummond  points  out  significantly  that  "  we 
are  coming  to  recognize  that  the  primary  aim  in  edu- 
cation should  be,  not  instruction  in  subjects,  but  de- 
velopment of  mind."  In  other  words,  education  has 
to  do  in  childhood  with  the  development  of  person- 
ality. For  it  is  personality  which  is  the  foundation 
of  character. 

The  two  factors  which  determine  the  nature  of 
child  personality  are  heredity  and  environment. 

HEREDITY 

What  is  it?  In  order  to  understand  it,  a  number 
of  definitions  will  be  in  order.  "  Heredity  is  that 
biological  law  by  which  all  beings  endowed  with  life 
tend  to  repeat  themselves  in  their  descendants ;  it  is 
for  the  species  what  personal  identity  is  for  the  in- 
dividual. By  it  a  groundwork  remains  unchanged 
amid  incessant  variation;  by  it  nature  ever  copies 
and  imitates  herself."  ^ 

Weismann  says,  "It  is  the  process  which  renders 
possible  that  persistence  of  organic  beings  through- 
out successive  generations,  which  is  generally  thought 

1  Ribot:     Heredity,  page  1. 


136  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

to  be  so  well  understood  and  to  need  no  special  ex- 
planation." ^ 

The  general  conception  of  heredity  is  that  "  like 
begets  like  " ;  in  theory  this  ideal  is  correct,  but  prac- 
tically the  law  of  life  does  not  work  out  with  such 
mathematical  precision.  The  law  is  more  simple  in 
the  vegetable  world,  more  complex  among  the  higher 
animals,  and  becomes  particularly  more  complicated 
in  man. 

With  respect  to  the  laws  of  heredity,  Ribot  shows 
that  there  are  four: 

( 1 )  Direct  Heredity.  It  consists  in  the  transmis- 
sion of  paternal  and  maternal  qualities  to  the  chil- 
dren.    He  shows  there  are  two  aspects  of  this  form : 

a.  The  child  takes  after  father  and  mother  equally 
as  regards  both  physical  and  moral  characters, —  a 
case,  strictly  speaking,  of  very  rare  occurrence,  for 
the  very  ideal  of  the  law  would  then  be  realized. 

b.  The  child,  while  taking  after  both  parents,  more 
specially  resembles  one  of  them;  and  here 
again  we  must  distinguish  between  two  cases.  The 
first  of  these  is  when  the  heredity  takes  place  in  the 
same  sex  from  father  to  son,  from  mother  to  daugh- 
ter. The  other,  which  occurs  more  frequently,  is 
where  heredity  occurs  between  different  sexes  —  from 
father  to  daughter,  from  mother  to  son. 

(2)  Reversional  Heredity.  This  law  is  sometimes 
called  atavism.  It  consists  in  the  reproduction  in 
the  descendants  of  the  moral  or  physical  qualities 
of   their    ancestors.     It    occurs    frequently    between 

1  Weisman :  Essays  on  Heredity,  Oxford  Translation, 
page  71. 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  1S7 

grandfather  and  grandson,  grandmother  and  grand- 
daughter. 

(S)  Collateral  or  Indirect  Heredity/.  This  is  of 
rarer  occurrence  than  the  foregoing,  and  subsists,  as 
indicated  by  its  name,  between  individuals  and  their 
ancestors  in  the  indirect  line, —  uncle,  or  grand-uncle 
and  nephew,  aunt  and  niece. 

(4)  Heredity  of  Influence.  Finally,  to  complete 
the  classification  we  must  mention  the  heredity  of  in- 
fluence, very  rare  from  the  physiological  point  of 
view,  and  of  which  probably  no  single  instance  is 
proved  in  the  moral  order.  It  consists  in  the  repro- 
duction in  the  children  by  a  second  marriage  of  some 
peculiarity  belonging  to  a  former  spouse."  ^ 

It  would  be  very  interesting  and  instructive  to 
trace  each  law  in  its  details,  but  this  would  be  beyond 
the  compass  of  our  book.  It  is  our  purpose  to  trace 
the  general  application  of  the  laws  along  the  lines  of 
physical,  intellectual,  and  moral  heredity. 

PHYSICAL,    INTELLECTUAL,    AND    MORAL    HEREDITY 

As  the  result  of  extensive  studies  on  the  problem 
of  heredity,  Galton  has  formulated  the  following  law : 
"  Each  parent  contributes  on  an  average  one  quarter, 
or  (0.5),^  each  grandparent  one-sixteenth,  or  (0.5),^ 
and  so  on,  and  generally  the  occupier  of  each  an- 
cestral place  in  the  n^*"  degree,  whatever  be  the  value 
of  n,  contributes  (0.5)  ^"  of  the  heritage."  This  is 
not  the  ideal  way  to  express  the  law  of  heredity,  and 
many  exceptions  will  be  found  to  contradict  it,  but 
the  principle  enunciated  by  Galton  is  true.     As  Dr. 

1  Ribot:     Heredity,  page  147. 


138  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

Drummond  has  pointed  out  so  clearly,  the  "  doctrine 
of  heredity  is  a  kind  of  scientific  determinism." 

Concerning  parentage,  place  of  birth,  or  the  num- 
ber of  talents  he  may  be  endowed  with,  the  child  born 
into  the  world  has  no  choice.  As  the  result  of  his 
inheritance  each  child  possesses  certain  potentialities 
which  may  or  may  not  be  actualized  by  circumstances, 
education,  or  individual  choice.  A  child  may  pos- 
sess the  talent  to  be  an  artist  or  musician,  but  the 
force  of  circumstances  may  permit  that  talent  to  die. 

Each  child  inherits  certain  physical  tendencies,  and 
the  manner  in  which  they  will  be  developed  will  de- 
pend largely  upon  the  environment  of  his  life.  For 
example,  a  child  may  be  born  of  tubercular  parentage, 
but  it  does  not  necessarily  follow  that  the  child  will 
have  the  disease.  As  I  write  I  have  in  mind  such  a 
case,  but  the  child  has  grown  to  strong,  robust  man- 
hood, and  to  see  him  one  would  never  suppose  that  he 
was  the  oifspring  of  tubercular  parentage.  In  his 
early  childhood  his  physical  nature  was  weak,  and 
there  was  every  tendency  to  indicate  that  he  might 
become  subject  to  the  dreaded  disease.  However, 
he  was  given  careful  attention  as  to  his  food,  bodily 
health,  air,  and  exercise,  and  he  outgrew  those  in- 
herited tendencies.  Numerous  similar  examples  could 
be  cited.  When  the  weak  physical  tendencies  are 
properly  treated,  "  the  probability  is,"  in  the  words 
of  Dr.  Drummond,  "  that  he  will  live  to  a  green  old 
age." 

It  will  be  in  order  here  to  note  the  tendency  of 
heredity  with  respect  to  intemperance.  There  is 
really  general  agreement  among  scientists  that  it  is 
impossible  to  transmit  intemperance,  but  the  physical 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 


139 


condition  shows  a  potential  tendency  wliich,  if  sub- 
jected to  favorable  circumstances,  will  invariably  lead 
to  the  drink  habit.  Scientific  investigation  shows 
that  intemperance  also  affects  the  morals  and  intelli- 
gence of  offspring  of  such  parentage. 

Professor  H.  H.  Goddard  of  the  Vineland  Train- 
ing School  of  New  Jersey,  who  has  conducted  special 
research  work  along  the  lines  of  heredity  w  ith  respect 
to  feeble-minded  children,  reports  the  following,  which 
is  represented  by  a  chart. 


EJ-rO         [Sli-r-O 


Eh 


hy^(:^^6t^l--r-0liK-Hf^ 


El 


The  symbols  used  in  this  chart  are  the  following: 
square  indicates  male ;  circle  indicates  female.  A 
capital  letter  indicates  disease,  habit,  or  condition, 
as  follows:  A,  alcoholic  (habitual  drunkard);  F, 
feeble-minded,  either  black  letter,  or  white  letter  on 
black  ground  (the  former  when  sex  is  unknown)  ; 
T,  tuberculous;  D,  died.  Inf.,  infancy;  hand  shows 
which  child  is  in  the  institution  for  feeble-minded; 
Illeg.,  illegitimate;  C,  criminal. 

"  The  explanation  of  the  chart  is  as  follows :  On 
the  lowest  line,  which  represents  the  brothers  and 
sisters  of  the  child  in  the  institution,  the  children  are 
indicated  in  the  order  of  birth, —  the  oldest  to  the 


140  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

left.  This  chart  shows  the  maternal  grandparents 
feeble-minded,  and  they  have,  as  usual,  only  feeble- 
minded offspring  —  two  girls.  One  of  these  married 
a  feeble-minded  man  whose  brother  was  feeble-minded 
and  a  criminal,  and  whose  sister  was  disgracefully 
alcoholic.  However,  a  normal  brother  of  the  hus- 
band married  a  normal  woman  and  had  six  normal 
children.  The  offspring  of  the  feeble-minded  woman 
and  this  feeble-minded  man  were  three  feeble-minded 
children  and  two  others  who  died  in  infancy.  An 
illegitimate  child  of  this  woman  is  feeble-minded  and  a 
criminal."  ^ 

The  examples  cited  as  the  result  of  ph3^sical 
heredity  are  but  a  few  of  the  thousands  that  could  be 
mentioned.  Illustrations  showing  the  results  of  in- 
tellectual and  moral  heredity  may  also  be  found  in 
abundance.  The  law  of  physical  heredity  is  the  same 
as  applied  to  intellectual  and  moral  concepts,  only 
more  complex.  The  intellectual  and  moral  status 
of  our  children  is  the  resultant  of  the  inheritance  they 
have  received  from  their  ancestors.  Careful  psy- 
chological and  educational  investigations  have  shown 
that  the  child  who  has  inherited  strong  moral  and  in- 
tellectual tendencies  most  readily  responds  to  in- 
struction. The  researches  of  Galtom  show  that  a 
child  resembles  its  parents  in  mind  as  well  as  body. 
Dr.  Bradford,  who  has  made  careful  studies  of  heredi- 
tary moral  and  intellectual  tendencies,  among  his 
numerous  examples  reports  the  following: 

(1)  Poets.  "Coleridge  was  a  poet  and  a  meta- 
physician.    His  son  Hartley  was  also   a  poet,  and 

1  H.  H.  Goddard :     Report  American  Breeders'  Association, 
Vol.  VI,  p.   104  and  105. 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  141 

subject  in  his  precocious  childhood  to  visions.  His 
imagination  was  singularly  vivid  and  of  a  morbid 
character.  He  inherited  also  his  father's  love  for 
stimulants.  The  Rev.  Dervent  Coleridge,  another 
son,  was  an  author  likewise,  and  principal  of  the 
Chelsea  Training  College.  The  daughter,  Sara,  was 
also  a  Avriter,  and  possessed  all  her  father's  indi- 
vidual characteristics.  She  married  her  cousin,  and 
of  this  union  was  born  Herbert  Coleridge,  a  philolo- 
gist. If,  now,  the  lineage  of  Goethe,  Hugo,  Milton, 
etc.,  are  studied,  it  will  hardly  need  an  argument  to 
show  that  heredity  works  among  the  poets." 

(2)  Music.  "The  hereditary  character  of  musi- 
cal talent  is  well  known.  Allegri,  author  of  the 
*  Miserere,'  was  of  the  same  family  as  Correggio 
the  painter,  and  the  artistic  talents  are  probably 
radically  one,  whether  they  be  manifested  in  rhythm, 
in  color,  or  in  sweet  sounds.  Andrea  Amati  was 
only  the  most  illustrious  member  of  a  family  of  violin- 
ists at  Cremona ;  Mozart's  father  was  a  violinist ; 
Beethoven  was  the  son  of  a  tenor  singer;  and  Mendel- 
sohn was  of  a  musical  family.  The  Bachs  supply 
perhaps  the  most  distinguished  instance  of  mental 
heredity  on  record.  The  family  began  in  1550  and 
lasted  through  eight  generations,  to  the  year  1800."  ^ 

These  illustrations  are  sufficient  to  show  the 
potency  of  heredity  in  the  physical,  moral,  and  in- 
tellectual tendencies  of  child  life.  These  tendencies 
may  be  potent  factors  for  regeneration  or  degenera- 
tion of  the  individual  life.  Evil  tendencies  show  how 
deep-seated   is    the    taint   of   sin   in   human    nature. 

1  A.    H.    Bradford:    Heredity    axd    Christian    Problems, 
pages  38  and  39. 


14^  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

Thus  scientific  investigation  shows  the  forcibleness 
of  the  truth  of  God's  Word  that  the  iniquity  of  the 
fathers  is  visited  upon  the  children  of  the  third  and 
fourth  generation,  and  loving  kindness  is  shown  to  a 
thousand  generations  that  love  God  and  keep  his 
commandments.  Under  the  guiding  hand  of  re- 
ligious education  through  the  child  life,  the  heredi- 
tary taint  of  evil  tendencies  will  be  gradually  lessened, 
and  the  blessings  of  virtue  and  purity  will  be  the 
future  heritage  of  the  children  of  the  great  human 
race. 

ENVIRONMENT 

We  have  shown  that  a  child  is  born  into  the  world 
endowed  with  certain  tendencies  which  he  has  in- 
herited from  his  ancestors.  The  way  those  tendencies 
shall  be  influenced  will  largely  depend  upon  his  en- 
vironment. After  birth  it  is  largely  environment 
that  determines  man's  character.  By  environment 
we  mean  those  influences  which  are  brought  to  bear 
from  without  on  an  individual's  life  after  birth.  Dr. 
Bradford  also  gives  this  definition,  "  It  is  the  sum  of 
all  that  is  extrinsic  to  a  human  being,  and  which  in 
any  way  touches  or  influences  him  from  the  beginning 
of  his  career."  ^ 

Among  the  influences  which  may  be  mentioned  are 
climate,  health,  home,  business,  religious  and  secular 
education,  morals,  etc.  It  would  indeed  be  interest- 
ing to  trace  each  factor  as  a  contributing  agent  to 
the  development  of  an  individual's  character,  but  all 
of  these  phases  are  beyond  the  compass  of  this  chap- 
ter.    The  phase  of  development  which  concerns  us 

1  Bradford:     Heeedity   akd   Christian    Problems,   page   54. 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  143 

here  is, —  To  what  extent  are  the  hereditary  ten- 
dencies of  the  child  life  modified  by  environment? 

Some  investigators  assert  that  heredity  is  a 
stronger  factor  in  determining  character  than  en- 
vironment. For  instance,  Ribot  agrees  with  Burdach 
that  "  heredity  has  actually  more  power  over  our 
mental  constitution  and  our  character  than  all  ex- 
ternal influences,  physical  or  moral."  ^  Ribot  writes, 
"  So  variable  is  the  influence  of  education  that  we 
may  doubt  whether  it  is  ever  absolute.  It  is  needless 
to  cite  facts  from  history,  which  tells  only  of  men  of 
eminence  or  distinction  —  we  need  only  appeal  to 
every-day  experience.  It  is  not  rare  to  find  children 
sceptical  in  religious  families ;  debauched  men  amid 
good  examples,  or  ambitious  men  in  a  family  of  re- 
tiring, peaceable  disposition.  Yet  we  are  speaking 
only  of  ordinary  people  whose  life  passes  away  on  a 
restricted  stage,  who  die  and  are  forgotten."  ^ 

Elsewhere  he  writes :  "  We  must  bear  in  mind 
these  facts  and  be  careful  not  to  believe  that  educa- 
tion explains  everything.  We  would  not,  however, 
in  the  least  detract  from  its  importance.  Education, 
after  centuries  of  efl'ort,  has  made  us  what  we  are. 
Moreover,  to  bear  sway  over  average  minds  is  in  it- 
self a  grand  part  to  play ;  for  though  it  is  the  higher 
minds  that  act,  it  is  mediocre  minds  that  react,  and 
history  teaches  that  the  progress  of  humanity  is  as 
much  the  result  of  the  reaction  which  communicates 
motion  as  of  the  actions  which  first  determine  it."  ^ 

We  recognize  the  fact  that  the  messages  we  have 
quoted,  coming  as  they  do  from  specialists,  are  de- 

1  Ribot:     Heredity,  page  346. 

2  Ribot:     Heredity,  pages  350  and  351. 


144  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

serving  of  the  most  serious  consideration.  However, 
we  cannot  agree  with  their  viewpoint  that  heredity  is 
a  stronger  factor  than  environment  in  determining 
character.  Our  observations  have  led  us  to  take  the 
side  of  environment.  In  this  view  we  are  upheld 
by  many  scientists,  religionists,  educators,  social 
workers,  etc.  If  education  and  religion  are  power- 
less to  uplift  humanity,  truly  the  future  of  the  human 
race  is  very  dark  and  gloomy.  Even  Ribot  acknowl- 
edges that  education  has  been  a  most  important  fac- 
tor in  the  developing  of  the  race.  History  shows 
that  true  education  has  been  a  great  constructive 
factor  in  the  positive  development  of  humanity. 

If  we  follow  at  the  present  time  religion,  educa- 
tional, and  social  reform  movements,  we  see  there  is 
the  recognition  of  the  powerful  influence  of  environ- 
ment to  uplift  and  elevate  the  individual  and  com- 
munity alike.  We  could  cite  a  multitude  of  examples 
wherein  we  could  show  that  environment  can  and  does 
modify  hereditary  tendencies  for  the  betterment  of 
the  individual.  For  instance,  follow  the  work  of  the 
various  children's  aid  societies  which  have  as  their 
mission  the  saving  of  children  who  are  the  victims 
of  unfavorable  circumstances  in  homes  where  vice,  in- 
temperance, etc.,  prevail,  and  who  are  afterwards 
placed  in  homes  where  conditions  of  purity  and  edu- 
cation obtain.  The  results  obtained  are  far-reach- 
ing. Evil  and  vicious  tendencies  in  the  child  life  have 
been  overcome,  and  the  good  qualities  have  been  de- 
veloped and  noble  characters  formed. 

Dr.  Bradford  significantly  points  out  the  impor- 
tance of  environment  when  he  says :  "  The  impor- 
tance of  reaching  the  forces  of  heredity  as  early  as 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  145 

possible  with  right  training  is  evident.  Delay  means 
opportunity  for  evil  environment  to  appeal  to  evil 
in  the  soul.  The  nearer  to  the  moment  of  birth  the 
influence  of  purity,  healthfulness,  and  religion  can  be 
brought,  the  greater  the  probability  that  they  will 
become  predominant  forces  in  determining  character 
and  conduct."  ^ 


1  Bradford:     Heredity    and   Christian    Problems,   page    69. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

PERIODS    OF   DEVELOPMENT:     EARLY 
CHILDHOOD 

Growth  —  Play  Traits  —  Memory/  —  Imagma- 
tion  —  Self  —  Dependence  —  Fear  —  Language 
—  Religious  Education. 

There  is  general  agreement  among  psychologists 
at  the  present  time  that  the  child  recapitulates  in  his 
physical  and  mental  development  the  chief  periods 
of  the  history  of  the  race.  He  also  has  his  own  pe- 
culiar and  distinctive  periods  of  growth.  We  can- 
not draw  an  arbitrary  line  and  say  that  precisely  at 
this  point  one  period  ends  and  the  next  epoch  be- 
gins. The  ages  of  development  are  only  approxi- 
mate. It  is  our  purpose  to  treat  briefly  and  yet  at 
sufficient  length  these  various  periods  in  this  and 
subsequent  chapters. 

A  simple  division  of  the  periods  of  the  life  of  man 
is  as  follows : 

(1)  Babyhood  —  the   first  three   years. 

(2)  Childhood  —  three  j^ears  to  twelve  years. 

(3)  Adolescence  —  twelve  years  to  twenty-five 
years. 

(4)  Manhood  —  twenty-five  years  to  the  end  of 

life. 

146 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  147 


GROWTH 

Early  childhood  is  marked  by  rapid  physical 
growth.  During  the  first  year  the  child  grows  about 
eight  inches.  The  first  six  years  is  marked  by  a 
growth  of  about  twenty-five  inches. 

The  child  is  restless,  active,  and  takes  delight  in 
doing  things.  It  is  estimated  that  he  can  keep  still 
about  fifty  seconds.  He  needs  this  motion  and 
energy;  it  is  necessary  for  his  growth.  It  is  a  mis- 
take to  repress  his  active  and  restless  spirit,  but  it  is 
to  be  utilized  and  directed  in  proper  channels  to 
foster  the  growth  of  his  bodily  functions.  The 
proper  direction  of  this  force  will  reflect  itself  in  the 
temperament  and  disposition  of  the  child ;  repression 
means  ill-temper;  development,  a  lovable  nature. 
The  kindergarten  provides  for  motion  exercises  and 
songs  and  even  play,  all  planned  toward  controlling 
and  directing  the  restless  child  spirit.  Each  Bible 
School  should  follow  along  the  same  idea  in  planning 
the  service  to  fit  the  age  of  the  children,  and  not  vice 
versa. 

PLAY  TRAITS 

Coincidental  with  growth  is  the  play  trait  in  chil- 
dren. Play  can  be  made  to  act  as  a  means  toward 
fostering  grow^th  and  the  direction  of  their  boundless 
energy  and  activity  into  proper  channels.  Dr. 
Drummond  well  says  :  "  Play,  then,  may  be  regarded 
as  Nature's  method  of  education."  ^ 

During  the  period  of  early  childhood,  plays  are 
largely   individualistic.     The  earliest  kind   of  plays 

1  Drummond:     Child  Study,  page  2^19. 


148  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

are  largely  those  of  movement.  The  impulse  is  to 
kick,  run,  jump,  climb,  etc.  Very  early  the  impulse 
to  imitate  is  manifested.  Their  play  shows  how 
eagerly  and  closely  they  imitate  their  elders.  They 
enter  into  their  play  with  energy,  earnestness,  and 
interest.  They  imitate  every  word,  art,  gesture,  and 
mannerism  of  their  elders.  They  play  engineer,  doc- 
tor, preach,  build  houses,  spade  garden,  play  soldier, 
write  letters,  etc.  All  these  activities  present  tremen- 
dous opportunities  for  later  life.  Foundations  may 
be  laid  in  child  life  which  will  show  results  later  in 
character,  education,  usefulness,  and  responsibility. 

Again,  the  idea  of  the  kindergarten  needs  to  find 
a  large  place  in  our  Bible  School  so  that  the  chil- 
dren may  be  taught  the  right  ideals  toward  things  re- 
ligious. Religion  and  education  must  be  recognized 
as  one.  Reverence,  so  essential  to  religious  ideals, 
can  be  impressed  on  the  child  mind  where  play  is 
properly  directed  and  its  lessons  taught  by  the  intro- 
duction of  the  kindergarten  in  the  Bible  School.  On 
this  point  Coe  says: 

"  The  practical  problem  is,  in  part,  to  extend  the 
Christian  spirit  through  all  the  games  and  plays  of 
childhood  and  youth,  and  the  play  spirit  through  the 
instrumentalities  of  religious  education,  so  that  the 
whole  life  shall  be  lived  as  in  the  sight  of  God  and  in 
friendship  with  Christ.  If  the  thought  of  God  or  of 
Christ  chills  the  joy  of  games  and  plays,  that  merely 
proves  that  we  have  misinterpreted  the  divine  to  chil- 
dren. A  child  who  cannot  freely  unbend  in  the  pres- 
ence of  his  earthly  father  or  an  elder  brother  is  a 
witness  against  such  a  father  or  such  a  brother. 
There  is  imperfectly  revealed  fatherhood,  and  imper- 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  149 

fcctly  revealed  brotherhood.  The  fact  that  we  have 
so  represented  the  heavenly  Father  and  the  great 
elder  Brother  of  us  all  shows  how  slow  of  heart  we 
have  been,  how  slightly  we  have  grasped  the  principle 
of  incarnation.  God  in  Christ  means  God  in  child- 
hood as  well  as  in  manhood ;  God  in  childhood's  plays, 
therefore,  as  truly  as  in  the  manhood's  labor  and 
worship."  ^ 

MEMORY 

The  memory  of  childhood  must  be  viewed  from  two 
points:  (1)  physiological;  (2)  psychological. 

From  the  physiological  point  of  view  the  memory 
is  strong.  The  mind  at  this  age  is  very  susceptible 
to  impressions,  many  of  which  become  permanent.  It 
is  the  most  impressionable  period  of  life,  and  these 
memories  of  childhood  experiences  are  remembered 
longer  than  any  others. 

From  the  psychological  side  the  memory  is  weak. 
This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  in  early  childhood  the 
power  of  attention  is  small.  However,  the  psycho- 
logical side  of  memory  becomes  stronger  as  the  child 
becomes  older. 

IMAGINATION 

Early  childhood  is  marked  by  a  very  strong  and 
active  imagination.  At  first  the  imagination  starts 
from  the  world  of  reality.  The  results  of  the  imagi- 
nation of  children  are  brought  out  particularly  then 
in  their  play.  Their  imaginative  world  is  real  in 
every  sense  of  the  word.  For  example,  my  little  girl 
is  very  fond  of  paper  dolls.     She  calls  these  dolls  her 

iCoe:    Education  in  Religion  and  Morals,  pages  145-156. 


150  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

famil}^ ;  each  one  is  a  real  person,  having  a  name,  and 
in  the  course  of  her  play  each  doll  does  something 
or  goes  somewhere.  Sometimes  she  takes  her  doll 
family  down  town  to  shop,  they  go  to  school,  to 
church,  and  Bible  School,  on  pleasure  trips,  etc. 

There  is  also  frequent  tendency  for  a  child  to 
elaborate  some  story  or  simple  experience  in  his  life. 
He  will  mingle  facts  and  fancy  in  his  statements.  It 
will  be  difficult  from  his  telling  it  to  determine  where 
fact  ends  and  fancy  begins.  In  this  respect  children 
cannot  be  said  to  be  telling  falsehoods.  They  should 
not,  as  is  so  often  claimed,  be  punished,  as  is  so  often 
done;  but  children  should  be  helped  to  properly  de- 
velop their  imagination. 

Children  are  naturally  fond  of  stories,  and  every 
effort  should  be  made  by  parent  and  teacher  to  tell 
them  good,  simple  tales  which  will  be  the  means  of 
developing  their  imagination  along  constructive  lines. 

SELF 

It  is  interesting  to  note  along  what  lines  a  child 
learns  to  know  himself,  and  the  manner  in  which  he 
develops  self-consciousness.  The  early  life  of  the 
child  is  for  him  a  period  of  explanation.  He  gradu- 
ally learns  to  know  his  body.  In  this  way  he  sepa- 
rates hnnself  from  his  surroundings.  For  example, 
a  child  of  a  few  months  carefully  studies  his  hands 
and  eventually  learns  to  use  them  in  various  ways. 
When  he  learns  to  walk  and  his  sphere  of  activity 
is  increased  thereby,  he  is  able  to  do  more  things ; 
the  self-idea  grows  and  develops  more  rapidly  from 
this  time  on.  Confidence  and  power  are  quickly  de- 
veloped. 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  151 

Another  step  in  the  emergence  of  self  is  in  the  use 
of  pronouns  and  names.  A  little  child  will  invariably 
call  himself  "  Bubber "  (brother),  or  by  his  first 
name.  The  pronouns  "  I  "  or  "  me  "  are  not  used 
until  considerably  later.  The  boy  will  say  of  a  toy, 
"  Bubber  wants  it."  He  means  himself,  and  the  de- 
sire for  the  toy  gave  expression  to  a  consciousness  of 
his  own  personality.  His  later  use  of  "  I  "  as  substi- 
tution for  "  Bubber  "  likewise  illustrates  a  distinct 
concrete  idea  of  "  self."  Tracy  says,  "  The  '  I  '  feel- 
ing is  often  present,  therefore,  before  the  word  is 
used.  The  concept  of  the  self  is  not  generated,  but 
only  rendered  more  exact  and  definite  by  speech."  ^ 

Personal  possessions  are  indicative  of  self-con- 
sciousness. Children  of  this  age  are  usually  very 
selfish.  They  are  not  willing  to  share  their  toys  with 
another  playmate.  Their  selfishness  is  peculiar  to 
the  period  of  life  and  is  but  an  evidence  of  the  de- 
velopment of  self-individuality.  A  child  manifests 
the  spirit  of  ownership  and  selfishness  particularly 
when  he  sees  another  child  having  a  toy  that  perhaps 
he  discarded, —  then  he  wants  it ;  or  perhaps  when  one 
tries  to  take  one  of  his  toys,  he  will  insist  on  having 
it.  This  passion  of  ownership  and  selfishness  is  even 
manifested  by  the  child  before  he  is  able  to  talk. 

It  is  characteristic  for  children  under  six  years 
of  age  to  lie,  cheat,  and  steal  in  order  to  possess  and 
acquire  property.  Parents  and  teachers  try  to  keep 
these  forces  down  and  to  overcome  them.  They  try 
to  teach  them  unselfishness,  not  to  do  these  things, 
and  to  respect  rights  of  others.  However,  these  are 
the  natural  traits  of  the  period  of  life.  By  careful 
1  Tracy:    Pstchology  of  Childhood,  page  73. 


15S  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

guidance  and  teaching  and  not  punishment,  these 
forces  will  be  overcome  and  spend  themselves. 
"  These  deeds  are  giving  the  child  an  idea  of  self." 

Such  are  the  various  factors  entering  into  the  de- 
velopment of  the  child's  self-consciousness,  by  which 
"  he  raises  himself  higher  and  higher  above  the  de- 
pendent condition  of  the  animal,  so  that  at  last  the 
difference  between  animals  and  human  beings  obtain 
such  infinite  magnitude."  ^ 

DEPENDENCE 

The  little  child  is  dependent  upon  his  parents.  He 
clings  very  closely  to  them  and  to  his  kindergarten 
teacher.  His  trust  and  faith  in  them  is  boundless. 
He  believes  whatever  they  tell  him.  He  accepts 
their  statements  literally.  This  fact  is  well  illus- 
trated by  his  religious  belief.  Whatever  the  children 
hear  they  believe.  The  varied  conceptions  of  re- 
ligious belief  that  they  hold  are  most  remarkable. 
The  simple  religious  stories  that  they  are  (or  should 
be)  taught  are  invariably  mingled  with  religious  and 
theological  phrases  which  they  have  heard  from  par- 
ental conversation.  The  child  translates  all  state- 
ments that  he  hears  into  some  concrete  form  which 
will  be  intelligible  to  him.  His  imagination  runs  riot, 
and  fact  and  fancy  are  so  intermingled,  in  conse- 
quence, that  his  conceptions  of  God  are  grotesque 
and  weird.  On  this  point  Dr.  Pratt  reports  the  fol- 
lowing example,  which  is  the  common  belief  of  many 
children :  "  God  is  a  big  blue  man  who  pours  rain 
out  of  big  buckets,  thumps  clouds  to  make  thunder, 
puts  the  sun  and  moon  to  bed,  takes  dead  people, 

I  Tracy:    Psychology  of  Childhood,  page  74, 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  153 

birds  and  even  broken  dolls  up  there,  distributes 
babies  and  is  closely  related  to  Santa  Glaus."  ^ 

John  Fiske's  conception  is  also  very  interesting  as 
he  writes,  "  I  remember  distinctly  the  conception 
which  I  had  formed  when  five  years  of  age.  I  ima- 
gined a  narrow  office  just  over  the  zenith,  with  a  tall 
standing-desk  running  lengthwise,  upon  which  lay 
several  open  ledgers  bound  in  coarse  leather.  There 
was  no  roof  over  this  office,  and  the  walls  rose  scarcely 
five  feet  from  the  floor,  so  that  a  person  standing  at 
the  desk  could  look  out  upon  the  whole  world.  There 
were  two  persons  at  the  desk,  and  one  of  them,  a  tall, 
slender  man,  of  aquiline  features,  wearing  spectacles, 
with  a  pen  in  his  hand,  another  behind  his  ear,  was 
God.  The  other,  whose  appearance  I  do  not  dis- 
tinctly recall,  was  an  attendant  angel.  Both  were 
diligently  watching  the  deeds  of  men,  and  recording 
them  in  the  ledgers."  ^ 

It  is  well-nigh  impossible  to  dispell  these  grotesque 
anthropomorphic  conceptions  from  the  child  mind, 
but  by  careful  guidance  and  teaching  the  child  will 
outgrow  them. 

FEAR 

Another  trait  peculiar  to  childhood  is  fear.  The 
manifestation  of  fear  seems  to  be  instinctive,  since 
childhood  has  had  no  experience  of  the  dangers  from 
w^hich  fears  arise.  The  instinct,  inherited  undoubt- 
edly, points  back  to  the  primitive  condition  of  the 
race  ages  ago. 

Unusual  noises,  such  as  thunder,  booming  of  can- 

1  Pratt:    Psychology   of    Religious    Bexjef,    page    201. 

2  John  Fiske:     The  Idea  of  God,  page  116. 


154  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

non,  explosions,  have  caused  fear.  Children  have 
been  known  to  slap  their  hands  in  delight  at  bright 
dazzling  flashes  of  lightning,  but  to  become  well-nigh 
hysterical  at  the  loud  rumbling  noise  of  thunder. 

The  bigness  of  some  object  is  also  another  cause. 
For  example,  a  little  girl  once  awoke  from  her  sleep 
and  cried  out,  "  Mamma,  Big  Woo  got  me !  "  She 
said  it  was  in  her  bed,  and  for  several  nights  it  was 
impossible  to  get  her  to  sleep  there.  The  mother 
gradually  learned  from  the  child  that  her  "  Woo  " 
possessed  big  eyes,  big  teeth,  big  wings.  She  was 
very  fond  of  looking  at  pictures  of  animals,  and  evi- 
dently she  had  dreamed  of  some  animal  of  such  a  fan- 
tastic form.  It  was  only  possible  to  overcome  this 
fear  by  telling  the  child  that  papa  drove  the  "  Woo  " 
away,  and  he  would  not  let  it  hurt  his  little  girl. 

Childhood  will  outgrow  this  instinct  of  fear,  in 
part.  However,  it  is  essential  to  eliminate  it  from 
childhood  as  soon  as  possible.  A  child  is  naturally 
affectionate  and  sympathetic,  and  by  developing  these 
qualities,  fear  can  be  largely  overcome.  In  the 
stories  told  the  child,  and  in  whatever  is  taught  him, 
fear  should  be  absent. 

LANGUAGE 

When  a  child  begins  to  speak,  there  is  a  marked 
period  of  development  of  mind  power.  Continued 
use  of  language  marks  a  larger  development  of  mind. 
The  child  begins  to  use  language  as  a  result  of  sensa- 
tion, perception,  memory,  and  other  mental  expe- 
riences. Speech  also  comes  from  imitating  those 
about  him,  as  when  he  tries  to  say  words  that  others 
have  said.     A  child's  vocabulary  will  largely  depend 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  155 

upon  his  environment  and  educative  fondness.  A 
child  in  a  home  where  there  is  culture  and  a  vital  in- 
terest in  teaching  him  will  learn  much  more  rapidly 
than  a  child  which  is  left  to  shift  for  himself. 

Dr.  Tracy  has  made  a  careful  comparative  study 
of  the  vocabularies  of  children  from  which  we  take 
the  following :  "  A  child  of  nine  months  is  reported 
as  speaking  nine  words  plainly."  "  A  child  of  twelve 
months  uses  ten  words  with  meaning.  Six  of  these 
are  nouns,  two  adjectives,  and  two  verbs."  "  A  girl 
of  seventeen  months  is  reported  as  using  thirty-five 
words,  twenty-two  of  which  are  nouns,  four  verbs, 
two  adjectives,  four  adverbs,  and  three  interjec- 
tions." "  A  girl  at  two  years  employs  thirty-six 
words,  distributed  as  follows:  nouns,  sixteen;  adjec- 
tives, four;  pronouns,  three;  verbs,  seven;  adverbs, 
three;  interjections,  three."  ^ 

Other  investigations  have  shown  that  a  child's  vo- 
cabulary at  tliirty-two  months  numbered  642  words ; 
five  and  one-half  years,  1,500  words;  seven  years  of 
age,  about  2,500  words.  As  time  goes  on  a  child's 
vocabulary  rapidly  increases,  due  to  his  reading  and 
contact  with  the  outside  world. 

RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

To  provide  religious  education  for  this  period  of 
early  childhood  is  a  most  difficult  problem.  As  noted, 
it  is  a  period  in  which  the  instincts  and  impulses  pre- 
dominate. It  is  a  time  when  the  child  has  little  or  no 
power  of  discrimination. 

At  about  the  tliird  year  the  moral  sense  has 
awakened,  though  in  a  very  incomplete  degree.     By 

1  Tracy,     Psychology    of   Childhood,    page    144. 


156  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

the  sixth  year  the  child  has  a  fair  knowledge  of  right 
and  wrong  as  developed  through  his  limited  expe- 
rience. 

In  seeking  to  control  and  develop  the  tendencies 
and  impulses  of  children  into  right  channels,  parents 
will  sometimes  meet  with  obstinacy.  Sometimes  the 
serious  mistake  is  made  of  seeking  to  break  this  will 
power.  A  child  in  such  a  condition  requires  careful 
teaching  to  bring  about  proper  functioning  of  his 
will.  His  will  is  not  strong,  but  weak.  The  tendency 
of  the  will  is  to  functionate  along  actional  and  at- 
tentive lines.  Such  a  child  must  be  taught  the  proper 
development  of  action,  and  to  attend  well.  These 
are  the  resultants  of  a  properly  developed  normal 
child  will. 

Religious  education  during  the  first  period  of  child 
life  must  be  based  on  simple  truths  and  come  largely 
through  the  senses.  Lessons  of  nature  can  be  im- 
pressed on  his  mind,  it  seems,  better  than  any  other. 
In  a  short  time  he  will  respond  to  nature  lessons,  and 
an  instinct  hitherto  hidden  in  his  life  will  be  an- 
swered. The  journeys  to  the  mountain,  woods, 
fields,  or  seashore  will  never  be  forgotten  by  a  six  year 
old  child,  and  lessons  of  the  time  with  respect  to 
God's  creative  power,  etc.,  will  be  impressed  on  his 
mind. 

The  nature  instinct  in  him  will  respond  in  large 
measure  to  the  truths  unfolded  to  him  with  respect 
to  nature's  God.  Dr.  G.  Stanley  Hall  has  well  said : 
"  The  first  need  of  childhood  to-day  is  ample,  long, 
all-sided  exposure  to  all  the  nature  influences.  That 
is  the  basis  of  religion.  It  is  the  basis  without 
which  religion  will  never  be  complete,  or  what  it  might 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  157 

otherwise  have  been.  In  the  Bible  School  nature 
lessons  illustrating  the  Father's  care,  and  Bible  les- 
sons uttering  forth  truths  of  human  life,  should  be 
taught  simply  and  briefly." 


CHAPTER  IX 

PERIODS   OF   DEVELOPMENT:     LATER 
CHILDHOOD  —  SIX    TO    TWELVE   YEARS 

Growth  —  Mental  Developments:  Memory;  Imag- 
ination^  humor,  curiosity  —  The  Collecting  Instinct 
—  Religious  Education. 

GROWTH 

The  period  of  childhood  is  marked  by  rapid  growth 
of  bodily  organs  and  mental  functions.  The  child 
spirit  is  less  restless,  and  the  power  of  attention  is 
better  developed  in  consequence.  However,  he  shows 
tireless  activity.  He  lives  a  life  of  intense  action. 
This  spirit  is  manifested  in  his  games  and  play. 
The  imitative  instinct  of  the  first  period  is  continued 
into  the  next  period,  but  it  is  manifested  in  a  more 
complex  manner.  The  prominent  feature  of  his  imi- 
tative nature  is  shown  in  his  games.  Says  Dr. 
Drummond :  "  Many  of  these  games  are  of  great 
antiquity.  They  are  learned  by  imitation,  genera- 
tion after  generation,  and  owe  their  durability  to  the 
satisfaction  they  give  to  certain  primitive  instincts, 
especially  the  fighting  and  hunting  instincts  which 
are  so  strong  in  boyhood."  ^ 

Emulation  seems  to  be  an  innate  instinct  in  boy- 
hood which  is  brought  out  prominently  in  his  life  by 

1  Drummond:    Child  Study,  page  221. 
158 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  159 

his  plays.  He  enters  into  them  with  intensity  of 
earnestness,  with  grim  determination  to  do  his  best 
in  order  that  his  individual  superiority  may  be  mani- 
fested. The  games  and  spirit  of  emulation  develop 
in  boyhood  efficiency,  skill,  and  accuracy  in  the  per- 
formance of  his  individual  part.  Parents  and  teach- 
ers should  strive  to  keep  alive  in  each  boy's  life  this 
spirit  of  emulation  as  it  will  mean  much  to  him  in 
achieving  success  in  later  life. 

With  his  growth,  the  formation  of  habits  go  hand 
in  hand.  The  spirit  of  emulation  as  an  impulse  is 
a  most  important  factor  in  his  life,  and  if  properly 
controlled  and  directed  will  help  in  large  measure  in 
paving  the  way  for  the  formation  of  high  moral  and 
Christian  habits. 

The  growth  of  this  period  is  also  marked  by  daring 
and  courage.  A  boy  of  ten  or  twelve  years  is  ready 
to  fulfill  any  dare.  He  is  always  ready  to  do  the  im- 
possible. His  fearlessness  goes  to  the  extreme  in 
that  he  has  no  sense  of  danger.  For  example,  we 
know  of  an  eleven  year  old  boy  who  was  dared  by  his 
companions  to  climb  to  the  top  of  a  very  high,  slen- 
der flag  pole  on  a  very  windy  day.  To  have  climbed 
up  to  the  roof  of  the  pavilion  was  dangerous  in  it- 
self, but  to  endeavor  to  reach  the  top  of  the  flag  pole 
was  foolhardy  as  well  as  dangerous.  However,  the 
boy  took  up  the  dare,  and  when  he  was  half  way  to 
the  top  of  the  pole  it  cracked.  His  companions  called 
to  him  to  come  down,  but  he  kept  on  until  he  reached 
the  top.  When  he  reached  the  roof  the  pole  fell. 
When  he  got  down  to  the  ground,  his  companions 
cheered  him.  All  he  said  was,  "  I  never  take  a  dare." 
This  illustration  shows  the  physical  characteristics 


160  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

of  this  period,  marked  by  activity,  daring,  courage, 
and  recklessness. 

MENTAL  DEVELOPMENT 

MEMORY 

During  this  period  the  memory  is  active  and  shows 
remarkable  development.  About  the  age  of  nine  the 
power  of  the  memory  to  remember  the  concrete  is  at 
its  best.  From  about  the  age  of  eleven  or  twelve 
onwards,  the  memory  has  reached  the  period  of  de- 
velopment when  abstract  terms  are  memorized  with 
comparative  ease,  and  retained. 

Concerning  the  different  types  of  memory  Dr. 
Haslett  writes :  "  Different  types  of  memory  are 
found  to  exist.  The  visual  type  remembers  things  in 
terms  of  visual  images,  while  the  tactual  features 
largely  disappear.  The  auditory  type  sees  things 
in  terms  of  hearing,  while  the  visual  and  tactual  may 
fade  away.  The  tactual  type  remembers  in  terms  of 
touch.  The  mixed  type  of  memory  is  probably  the 
most  common  of  all,  and  the  most  valuable.  Usually 
one  of  the  three  types  prevails  in  each  mind,  and  the 
aim  in  teaching  is  so  to  present  the  material  as  to 
appeal  to  the  dominant  type."  ^ 

IMAGINATION 

As  in  the  earlier  period,  so  in  this  age,  the  imagi- 
nation is  very  active.  However,  it  does  not  develop 
the  extreme  fantastic  pictures  of  the  former  period. 
It  is  more  under  the  control  of  the  mind.  Its  prod- 
ucts cover  a  wide  range  of  forms.  "  In  their  origin 
they  may  be  almost  exclusively  emotional  or  as  ex- 

1  Haslett:    The    Pedagogical   Bible   School,   page   124. 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  161 

clusively  intellectual.  They  range  all  the  way  from 
the  laying  of  a  few  sticks  together  in  a  certain  way 
to  the  carving  of  the  Apollo  Belvedere ;  from  the  po- 
tato-masher to  the  linotype ;  from  '  Ba,  ba,  black 
sheep,'  to  the  Book  of  Job ;  from  the  mud  hut  to  the 
towering  cathedral;  from  the  crude  sketches  of  the 
simple-minded  peasant  to  the  noble  frescoes  of  the 
Vatican.  Out  of  imagination  rises  the  beautiful 
world  of  art,  inspiring  and  refining  the  race.  It 
touches  every  side  of  life  and  makes  progress  pos- 
sible." 1 

HUMOR 

At  no  other  period  in  life  is  there  such  a  crude 
sense  of  humor  as  in  this.  Children  in  the  earlier 
stage  are  easily  amused,  but  there  must  be  some- 
thing exceedingly  incongruous  and  ludicrous  to  ap- 
peal to  their  sense  of  humor.  Their  conception  of 
humor  is  largely  the  resultant  of  their  fantastic 
imaginings.  Many  of  the  incongruities  which  amuse 
them  in  the  imagination,  in  this  period  are  sought 
after  in  reality.  The  child  takes  keen  delight  in 
pulling  the  cat's  tail,  tying  a  tin  can  to  a  dog's  tail, 
and  in  the  performance  of  various  other  crude  and 
raw  tricks. 

Much  of  this  coarse  enjoyment  will  gradually  pass 
away  in  time,  but  it  will  require  careful  and  pains- 
taking efforts  on  the  part  of  parents  and  teachers 
alike  to  overcome  and  curb  these  tendencies.  The 
point  is  to  awaken  in  the  children's  minds  affection 
for  animals  so  that  they  will  not  become  the  victims 
of  their  tricks.     This  can  be  done,  because  child  life 

J  Taylor:    Sttjdy  of  the  Child,  page  132, 


162  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

at  this  period  is  affectionate  and  readily  responds. 
The  humor  spirit  is  to  be  cultivated,  but  every  effort 
is  to  be  sought  to  lift  it  from  crude  tendencies  to 
higher  planes  of  amusement. 

CURIOSITY 

Childhood  is  naturally  curious.  Curiosity  is  at 
the  basis  of  knowledge.  It  is  the  germ  of  educa- 
tional development.  The  baby  studies  his  body  and 
learns  the  use  of  the  different  organs.  The  child  at 
six  years,  with  larger  experience,  is  after  more  knowl- 
edge.    He  is  busy  accumulating  facts. 

From  the  age  of  six  to  eight  or  nine  years  may  be 
termed  the  question  age.  The  child  is  continually 
asking,  "Why?"  "How?"  "Where?"  "When?" 
etc.     One  is  at  a  loss  at  times  to  answer  his  questions. 

It  is  essential  that  the  truth  always  be  given  him, 
because  eventually  by  his  own  experience  and  through 
the  enlargement  of  his  mental  horizon,  he  will  test 
one's  answers,  and  if  he  finds  that  one  has  deceived 
him,  one's  influence  over  him  will  be  lessened  or  en- 
tirely lost. 

From  six  to  eight  years  curiosity  manifests  itself 
along  destructive  ways.  Toys  and  things  are  not 
torn  apart  for  the  mere  sake  of  destruction,  but  in 
order  to  learn  the  various  parts.  For  example,  a 
boy  of  seven  was  given  a  watch  on  his  birthday. 
For  weeks  he  studied  it,  and  very  frequently  he  asked 
the  question,  "  Where  is  the  tick  ?  "  All  answers  as 
to  the  construction  and  mechanism  failed  to  satisfy 
him.  One  day  he  was  found  taking  his  watch  very 
carefully  apart.     In  response  to  the  question,  "  Why 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  163 

did  you  do  it?  "  he  answered,  '*  I  wanted  to  find  the 
tick." 

From  about  nine  to  twelve  years  may  be  termed 
the  period  of  constructive  curiosity.  The  child  now 
puts  into  application  the  results  learned  in  the  former 
years.  That  is,  he  seeks  to  put  together  and  build 
up.     He  builds  houses,  constructs  sail-boats,  etc. 

THE  COLLECTING  INSTINCT 

This  instinct  manifests  itself  as  early  as  the  third 
year.  Up  to  the  eighth  year  the  impulse  is  mani- 
fested without  any  particular  direction  or  interest. 
There  is  the  tendency  to  possess  certain  things,  then 
to  specialize  and  develop  a  particular  interest  in 
specific  collections. 

Things  which  are  collected  at  this  stage  are  easily 
obtained.  They  consist  of  such  articles  as  boxes, 
toys,  dolls,  nails,  burnt  matches,  hair  pins,  etc.,  etc. 

The  specialization  period  is  between  the  ages  of 
eight  and  twelve  years.  Particular  interest  is  shown 
in  the  collections  which  are  numerous  in  kind  and 
quantity  even  in  this  period.  Interest  is  shown  in 
nature  collections  consisting  of  such  things  as  stones, 
bugs,  butterflies,  birds'  eggs,  flowers,  etc.  Tobacco 
tags  and  stamps  are  also  collected.  Keen  rivalry 
exists  between  individuals  and  between  groups  of  boys 
to  get  the  rarest  and  largest  collections.  Frequent 
combinations  are  made  whereby  a  group  will  carry 
on  extensive  trading  operation  places  in  order  to 
get  large  quantities  of  stamps,  tags,  etc.,  and  rare 
ones.  Each  boy  takes  much  pride  in  possessing  rare 
specimens. 


164  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

The   following  illuminating  and  interesting  table 
which  we  quote  from  Dr.  Hall's  work  shows :  ^ 

AVERAGE  NUMBER  OF  ACTIVE  COLLECTIONS  FOR 
DIFFERENT  AGES 


AGE  IN 

AVERAGE 

AVERAGE 

AVERAGE 

YEARS 

PER  BOY 

PER  GIRL, 

PER  CHILD 

6 

1.2 

1.9 

1.4 

7 

a.l 

2.6 

2.3 

8 

3.5 

4.5 

4. 

9 

3.9 

4.1 

4. 

10 

4f.4 

4.4 

4.4 

11 

3.4. 

3.3 

3.3 

12 

3. 

3. 

3. 

13 

3.5 

3.4 

3.4 

14 

3. 

3. 

3. 

15 

2.7 

3.3 

2.8 

This  collecting  impulse  should  be  utilized  by  the 
Bible  School  teacher  in  getting  the  pupils  to  make 
collections  of  Bible  verses,  pictures,  and  objects. 
Foundations  may  be  laid  for  intensive  Bible  study  in 
later  life. 

RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

For  this  stage  of  childhood  quite  different  plans 
for  providing  religious  education  must  be  followed. 
We  see  a  larger  development  of  will  power  and  the 
rise  of  conscience.  It  is  at  this  time  that  the  will 
must  be  strengthened  and  developed  in  order  that  the 
education  may  be  uniform.  Upon  the  will  are  de- 
pendent proper  and  consistent  decisions.  The  will 
is  naturally  active  in  child  life,  and  particularly  so 

1  Hall:    Aspects,  Child  Life  and  Education,  page  208. 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  165 

in  this  period.  This  is  the  time  when  by  proper  de- 
velopment in  his  ])lay,  games,  public  school  and  Bible 
School  work  the  child  may  have  his  will  trained  and 
strengthened.  Here  the  foundations  for  obedience, 
the  recognition  of  duly  constituted  authority  and 
personal  responsibility  are  laid  where  in  the  future 
he  shall  take  his  place  and  perform  his  duties  in 
church,  home,  and  state. 

With  the  development  of  his  will  the  growth  of  his 
moral  concepts  likewise  follows.  He  learns  to  dis- 
criminate more  readily  between  right  and  wrong. 
He  requires  a  practical  exemplification  of  the  Golden 
Rule.  Gradually  his  conscience  develops,  and  by  the 
age  of  ten  it  appears  very  strong.  Through  the 
education  of  his  moral  nature,  his  conscience  grows 
and  he  comes  to  see  things  in  a  different  light  as  com- 
pared with  his  earlier  childhood.  Impulse  and  in- 
stinct are  no  longer  the  dominating  factors  of  his 
life.  Reason,  will,  and  conscience  are  now  the  fac- 
tors of  his  life. 

We  have  noted  how  curious  he  is  about  everything. 
His  mind  is  growing,  and  it  is  by  questioning  that 
he  increases  his  store  of  facts  and  knowledge.  He 
still  holds  to  many  of  the  peculiar  anthropomorphic 
conceptions  of  God,  but  gradually,  by  careful  in- 
struction, these  views  may  be  overcome.  He  will 
discard  many  of  them  himself  as  his  experience  be- 
comes larger.  We  must  remember  that  the  develop- 
ment of  a  child's  religious  nature  requires  patience 
as  well  as  intelligence.  Between  the  ages  of  six  and 
nine  years  the  impressing  and  developing  of  religious 
educational  principles  will  be  largely  dependent  upon 
his    senses.     Teaching    should    be    done    principally 


166  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

through  pictures  and  stories.  Through  parental 
love  he  can  be  taught  to  love  Christ.  His  intellect 
has  reached  the  stage  where  he  can  understand  God's 
presence.  He  can  learn  to  pray  in  the  sense  of  ex- 
pressing his  own  prayers.  The  mistake  is  often 
made  by  Bible  School  teachers  of  seeking  to  impress 
upon  the  child's  mind  religious  principles  and  truths 
which  he  cannot  understand  nor  grasp.  The  plan  to 
be  followed  is  to  teach  them  truths  exemplifying  the 
objective  and  practical  side  of  religion. 

From  nine  to  twelve  years  the  child  develops  a  re- 
markable fondness  for  reading.  He  literally  devours 
volumes  on  heroes,  myths,  fables,  and  biography. 
The  remarkableness  of  a  retentive  memory  is  revealed 
in  what  he  can  tell  of  what  he  has  read. 

From  the  viewpoint  of  religious  education,  the 
capabilities  of  the  child  must  be  borne  in  mind.  He 
should  be  directed  to  read  Bible  history  and  biogra- 
phy. He  could  be  interested  in  social  and  religious 
customs.  Since  he  is  fond  of  the  heroic,  the  stories 
of  pioneer  and  self-sacrificing  missionaries  would 
meet  this  desire. 

We  have  already  noted  the  wonderful  retentive 
power  of  the  memory  during  the  stage  of  childhood. 
This  splendid  opportunity  should  be  utilized  by  Bible 
School  teachers  and  pastors  alike  in  having  children 
commit  to  memory  choice  portions  of  Scriptures  and 
the  Catechism.  There  should  be  no  explanation,  but 
it  should  be  done  as  a  memoriter  duty,  this  especially 
in  order  to  prepare  for  the  golden  opportunity  of 
teaching  Bible  truths  in  the  adolescent  period. 


CHAPTER  X 

PERIODS  OF  DEVELOPMENT: 
THE  ADOLESCENT 

Growth  —  Imaginatiow  —  Individuality  —  Friend- 
ship —  Faults  —  Conscience  —  Play  —  Anger  — 
Sympathy  —  Life  Flans  —  Religious  Life  —  Reli- 
gious Education. 

This  period  extends  from  about  the  twelfth  to 
twenty-fifth  year.  Some  writers  divide  it  as  follows : 
from  12  to  16,  early  or  initial  stage;  16  to  18  or  19, 
the  middle  period ;  a,nd  later  adolescence  from  19  to 
25.  However,  in  our  study  we  propose  to  treat  the 
period  as  a  whole.  There  is  so  much  overlapping 
that  it  is  difficult  to  say  when  one  period  ends  and 
the  next  begins,  but  where  the  various  changes  of  de- 
velopment and  growth  are  pronounced,  we  will  men- 
tion the  details  which  are  essential.  We  believe  this 
plan  will  prevent  confusion  and  misunderstanding, 
and  the  various  plans  set  forth  in  these  studies  will 
be  general,  and  at  the  same  time  it  is  endeavored  to 
explain  the  essentials  in  sufficient  detail. 

The  adolescent  stage  is  a  preparation  for  man- 
hood. The  changes  which  take  place  in  the  indi- 
vidual are  essential  as  foundations  for  the  develop- 
ment of  that  larger,  broader,  and  higher  life  which 
is  to  show  itself  in  a  "  stable  and  symmetrical  man- 
hood and  womanhood."     It  is  the  plastic  stage  of 

167 


168  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

life  and  the  impressions  made  upon  it  will  determine 
the  life  of  the  future.  Dr,  James  illustrates  this 
point  as  follows :  "  If  a  boy  grows  up  alone  at  the 
age  of  games  and  sports,  and  learns  neither  to  pla}^ 
ball,  nor  row,  nor  sail,  nor  ride,  nor  skate,  nor  fish, 
nor  shoot,  probably  he  will  be  sedentary  to  the  end 
of  his  days ;  and,  though  the  best  opportunities  be 
afforded  him  for  learning  these  things  later,  it  is  a 
hundred  to  one  that  he  will  pass  them  by  and  shrink 
from  the  effort  of  taking  these  necessary  steps  the 
prospect  of  which,  at  an  earlier  age,  would  have  filled 
him  with  eager  delight. 

"  In  all  pedagogy  the  great  thing  is  to  strike  the 
iron  while  hot,  and  to  seize  the  wave  of  the  pupil's 
interest  in  each  successive  subject  before  its  ebb  has 
come,  so  that  knowledge  may  be  got  and  a  habit  of 
skill  acquired  —  a  headway  of  interest,  in  short,  se- 
cured, on  which  afterward  the  individual  may  float. 
.  .  .  Outside  of  their  own  business,  the  ideas  gained 
by  men  before  they  are  twenty-five  are  practically 
the  only  ideas  they  shall  have  in  their  lives.  They 
cannot  get  anything  new.  Disinterested  curiosity  is 
past,  the  mental  grooves  and  channels  set,  the  power 
of  assimilation  gone."  ^ 

GROWTH 

The  adolescent  period  is  marked  by  growth  in 
height  and  weight.  From  the  ages  of  twelve  or  thir- 
teen years  to  about  sixteen  years,  girls  are  superior 
in  Aveight  and  height  to  boys.  The  fourteenth  year 
in  girls  is  the  most  vigorous  in  growth,  in  height  and 
weight;   this    continues    until   the    seventeenth   year, 

1  James :     Psychology,   Vol.    II,   pages   401    and   402. 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  169 

when  the  acme  of  their  physical  development  is  about 
reached.  Boys  also  develop  rapidly  in  growth,  in 
height,  and  weight  from  twelve  to  about  sixteen,  and 
after  sixteen  they  exceed  girls  in  height  and  weight. 
It  is  characteristic  of  both  sexes  for  growth  in  height 
to  precede  that  in  weight.  In  girls  between  the  ages 
of  seventeen  years  and  twenty-one  or  twenty-two, 
growth  is  very  slow,  and  it  is  about  this  latter  period 
that  it  ceases.  In  boys  from  seventeen  years  to 
about  twenty-five  there  is  growth  in  height  at  varying 
periods,  at  times  rapid,  and  then  very  slow,  ceasing 
at  about  twenty-five.  With  respect  to  weight  for 
both  sexes  during  these  periods,  it  varies  and  fluctu- 
ates. 

We  should  note  briefly  here  the  growth  and  de- 
velopment of  bodily  parts.  There  is  a  marked 
growth  of  the  bones ;  this  is  noted  particularly  in  the 
larger  bones.  The  arms  also  develop.  Moon  says : 
*'  In  length  from  shoulder  to  elbow,  the  rate  of  growth 
appears  to  increase  after  the  age  of  twelve,  while  in 
length  from  elbow  to  tip  there  is  little  variation  till 
the  age  of  fourteen  when  the  growth  is  relatively 
quickened."  There  are  changes  in  the  development 
of  the  head.  For  example,  from  fourteen  to  sixteen 
years  it  is  found  that  in  boys  there  is  a  marked  in- 
crease in  the  length  of  the  head;  a  similar  increase 
takes  place  in  girls  between  the  ages  of  twelve  and 
seventeen  years.  It  is  during  the  pubescent  period 
in  both  sexes  that  the  muscles  increase  in  length  and 
thickness.  The  heart  shows  marked  growth  and  de- 
velopment which  continues  with  considerable  rapidity 
until  twenty-five  years  and  after  that  less  rapidly. 
Coincidental  with  the  growth  of  the  heart  there  is  an 


170  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

augmented  development  of  lungs  and  chest.  This 
period  also  shows  the  rapid  growth  of  the  brain. 
During  the  period  between  the  ages  of  eight  and 
twelve  years  the  brain  grows  very  slowly.  Between 
the  years  of  twelve  and  fourteen  its  growth  is  more 
rapid ;  it  has  then  reached  almost  its  greatest  weight. 
Some  specialists  state  that  there  is  a  slight  growth 
between  twenty  and  thirty. 

The   varied   changes   which  we   have   sketched   so 
briefly  in  their  development  and  growth  mark,  so  to 
speak,  a  new  life  in  the  physical  nature  of  the  indi- 
vidual, i        I 
IMAGINATION 

The  adolescent  time  of  life  is  the  heyday  of  day- 
dreams, visions,  and  air  castles.  The  youth  becomes 
oblivious  of  his  surroundings,  and  his  fancy  carries 
his  mind  away  to  distant  worlds.  In  his  dreams  all 
his  wishes  are  fulfilled  and  his  ambitions  are  realized. 
The  normal  youth  may  indulge  frequently  in  these 
visions,  but  his  soul  soon  comes  back  to  the  world  of 
reality,  and  the  illusions  soon  pass  away. 

When  the  tendency  becomes  morbid,  and  illusion 
cannot  be  discriminated  from  reality,  then  the  danger 
line  is  reached.  It  is  then  that  the  responsibility 
ceases,  and  the  youth  moves  about  the  world  as  an- 
other personality,  and  he  is  not  accountable  for  his 
deeds  and  acts.  Habitual  morbid  dreams  will  even- 
tually lead  to  insanity.  From  this  morbid  condition 
he  must  be  guided  and  turned. 

INDIVIDUALITY 

This  is  the  period  of  self-assertiveness.  The  youth 
entertains  an  unusually  high  opinion  of  himself,  his 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  171 

ability,  ambitions,  and  achievements.  Whatever  he 
does  he  magnifies,  and  his  descriptions  are  highly  col- 
ored with  self.  There  is  no  vocation,  profession,  or 
line  of  activity  but  that,  so  great  is  self-conscience, 
he  believes  he  can  make  a  success  of  it.  He  is  im- 
pulsive and  impatient,  and  whatever  he  does  or  wants 
must  be  realized  immediately.  However,  as  he  be- 
comes more  mature  in  years,  with  experience  en- 
larged and  knowledge  increased,  much  of  this  self- 
assertiveness  is  sloughed  off  and  disappears.  Many 
of  his  ambitions  have  failed  of  realization,  and  his 
powers  have  been  tested  sufficiently  for  him  to  realize 
that  he  is  not  able  to  do  all  things  he  had  hoped. 
However,  his  self-confidence,  ambitions,  and  ability, 
properly  guided  and  directed  during  this  period, 
should  result  in  developing  a  personality  which  is 
capable  of  achievement  and  success. 

FRIENDSHIP 

Friendships  are  rapidly  formed  at  this  age  and  al- 
most as  quickly  broken.  In  the  early  adolescent 
period  the  tendency,  among  boys  particularly,  is  to 
travel  in  a  large  group.  From  fifteen  or  sixteen 
years  onward  this  tendency  gradually  passes  away, 
and  the  youth  has  a  particular  friend  or  chum  with 
whom  he  associates.  This  group  spirit  is  also  com- 
mon among  girls  in  the  earlier  adolescent  age,  but 
does  not  last  so  long  as  among  boys.  The  tendency 
is  to  break  up  into  smaller  groups  and  eventually 
into  group  friendships  of  two. 

Another  peculiar  tendency  is  the  extreme  love  and 
devotion  a  youth  may  show  to  a  girl;  on  the  other 
hand  there  may  be  shown  an  extreme  hatred  and  aver- 


172  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

sion  for  the  opposite  sex.  This  love  for  a  girl  may 
ripen  out  of  friendship,  but  the  psychology  of  such 
love  is  based  on  a  deeply  imbedded  instinct  in  man 
which  love  directs  toward  the  opposite  sex.  Take, 
for  example,  a  schoolboy  about  seventeen  years  of 
age,  who  becomes  deeply  enamoured  of  a  girl  of  the 
same  age  and  school.  The  infatuation  and  devotion 
each  for  the  other  may  be  very  marked.  They  are 
so  deeply  interested  in  each  other  that  they  do  not 
have  time  for  any  one  else.  They  go  to  school  to- 
gether in  the  morning,  they  are  with  each  other  at 
noon,  after  school,  and  whenever  possible.  It  seems 
as  though  there  is  not  time  enough  for  them  to  talk, 
and  to  tell  each  other  of  their  devotion.  However, 
in  a  few  months  their  affection  has  passed  away,  and 
perhaps  afterwards  they  disregard  and  will  not  speak 
to  each  other.  We  have  also  known  cases  where  this 
affection  continued  and  ended  in  marriage  and  the 
establishment  of  happy  homes.  This  sentimentalism 
is  characteristic  of  the  adolescent  age  and  need  not 
cause  serious  worriment,  for  it  is  generally  fleeting 
and   not   permanent. 

FAULTS 

Dr.  Hall  makes  the  following  noteworthy  state- 
ment :  "  In  all  civilized  lands,  criminal  statistics 
show  two  sad  and  significant  facts :  first,  that  there  is 
a  marked  increase  of  crime  at  the  age  of  twelve  to 
fourteen,  not  in  crimes  of  one,  but  of  all  kinds,  and 
that  this  increase  continues  for  a  number  of  years. 
While  the  percentage  of  certain  grave  crimes  increase 
to  mature  manhood,  adolescence  is  preeminently  the 
criminal  age  when  most  first  commitments  occur  and 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  173 

most  vicious  careers  are  begun.  The  second  fact  is 
that  the  proportion  of  juvenile  delinquents  seems  to 
be  everywhere  increasing,  and  crime  is  more  and  more 
precocious.  Although  vice  is  very  different  from 
crime,  and  although  but  a  relatively  small  proportion 
of  all  offenders  are  caught  and  sentenced,  the  number 
of  convictions  affords  one  of  the  best  indexes  of  the 
general  state  of  morality  at  any  age."  ^ 

Investigations  by  specialists  in  Europe  and  Amer- 
ica show  that  thievery,  truancy,  begging,  incorrigi- 
bility, and  sexual  abuse  are  the  most  common  crimes 
and  faults  associated  with  both  sexes,  particularly 
between  the  ages  of  thirteen  and  sixteen  3^ears.  The 
most  common  fault  of  all  is  sexual  abuse.  It  is  more 
than  a  fault;  it  has  come  to  be  a  vice.  It  is  a  fes- 
tering sore  which  threatens  to  degenerate  our  race, 
and  it  is  a  crying  shame  that  it  exists  as  a  blight  upon 
our  Christian  civilization.  Out  of  it  have  grown, 
from  its  very  nature,  deception,  secretiveness,  incor- 
rigibility, disobedience,  and  many  other  grievous 
faults  and  sins.  When  the  foundations  for  crime  are 
laid  in  this  vital,  impressionable,  transitional  period 
of  life,  it  is  readily  seen  how  easy  it  is  for  men  and 
women  to  become  hardened  criminals. 

How  to  rid  society  of  the  blighting,  festering  sore 
is  a  serious  and  difficult  problem.  In  order  to  deal 
with  juvenile  offenders  who  have  come  into  the 
clutches  of  the  law,  special  courts  have  been  estab- 
lished. We  realize  that  they  are  meeting  a  long  felt 
need  and  are  accomplishing  praiseworthy  results,  but 
the  work  they  do,  from  its  ver}^  nature,  is  limited. 

There  are  many  earnest  minded  religious  and  social 
iHall:    The  Psychology  of  Adolescence,  page  325. 


174  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

workers  who  urge  special  instruction  and  lectures  on 
sexology  and  sex  hygiene  to  be  given  in  our  schools 
to  the  separate  sexes.  Where  these  plans  have  been 
put  in  vogue  much  good  and  educational  benefit  has 
resulted. 

The  key  to  the  solution  of  the  problem  is  the  edu- 
cational one.  The  psychology  of  the  solution  must 
start  from  the  home.  Educators,  physicians,  and  re- 
ligious teachers  should  unite  in  waging  a  campaign 
of  education  whereby  parents  should  properly  in- 
struct their  children  in  sex  problems.  The  responsi- 
bility for  the  obliteration  of  this  festering  sore  of 
society  rests  upon  parenthood.  False  modesty,  pru- 
dery, and  indifference  keep  children  of  this  period 
from  knowing  the  proper  use  of  the  sexual  functions. 
The  information  they  usually  get  is  from  outside 
sources,  made  up  of  distorted  facts  and  false  con- 
clusions, and  hence  the  evil  which  is  in  our  midst. 

The  adolescent  period  is  a  time  when  the  youth 
longs  for  affection  and  love,  but  he  is  generally  held 
at  arm's  length,  and  his  affectionate  nature  starved. 
It  is,  then,  no  wonder  that  these  sexual  disorders 
are  more  common  to  youth.  The  first  ten  years  of 
a  boy's  life  are  marked  by  tender  care  and  affection 
in  his  home  life;  after  that  they  are  withheld  from 
him.  During  this  critical  period  of  his  life  he  needs 
all  the  love  his  young  nature  craves  in  order  to  guide 
him  safely  through  the  temptations  and  dangers 
which  are  peculiar  to  this  era. 

Every  father  is  responsible  for  the  proper  training 
of  his  child.  He  owes  it  to  society  to  instruct  his 
children  in  the  proper  usage  of  the  sexual  functions 
with  which  the  Creator  has  endowed  him. 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  176 

Pastors  and  Bible  School  teachers  can  supplement 
parental  training  most  effectively.  Every  pastor 
should  meet  all  the  youths  connected  with  his  church 
as  often  as  possible,  or  at  least  once  or  twice  a  year, 
and  speak  to  them.  As  already  noted,  the  youth  at 
the  time  can  be  readily  reached  by  religious  truths. 
There  is  a  religious  and  purity  side  to  these  social 
questions  which  need  strong  emphasis  and  which  can 
be  impressed  upon  the  youth.  Again  quoting  from 
Dr.  Hall,  "  The  superiority  of  Christianity  is  that 
its  comer-stone  is  love,  and  that  it  meets  the  needs  of 
this  most  critical  period  of  life  as  nothing  else  does. 
It  is  a  synonym  of  maturity  in  altruism,  and  a  reli- 
gion that  neglects  this  comer-stone,  that  is  not  help- 
ful in  this  crisis,  that  is  not  entered  upon  now  inevi- 
tably, is  wanting.  He  is  a  poor  psychologist  of  re- 
ligion and  a  worse  Christian  teacher  who,  whether 
from  ignorance  or  pruder}^  ignores  or  denies  all  this, 
or  leaves  the  young  to  get  on  as  best  they  may.  Sex 
is  a  great  psychic  power  which  should  be  utilized  for 
religion,  which  would  be  an  inconceivably  different 
thing  without  it,  and  one  of  the  chief  functions  of  the 
latter  in  the  world  is  to  normalize  the  former."  ^ 

Here  is  also  a  splendid  opportunity  for  Bible 
School  teachers.  After  twelve  years  of  age,  boys 
should  have  male  teachers,  who  are  more  able  to  fit 
into  the  adolescent  period  than  women.  This  is  the 
golden  opportunity  for  men  to  unfold  the  possibilities 
of  Christian  manhood  and  to  emphasize  those  ideals 
of  personal  purity,  integrity,  and  responsibility 
which  every  youth  needs. 

1  Hall:     The  Psychology  of  Adolescence,  page  464. 


176  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

CONSCIENCE 

This  may  be  made  the  golden  age  of  conscience. 
We  have  noted  the  gradual  development  of  conscience 
in  the  earlier  years  of  childhood.  The  adolescent 
period  is  the  impressionable  time  of  life.  The  whole 
personality  may  be  moulded,  by  suggestion,  environ- 
ment, and  teaching,  to  a  high  ideal  or  the  reverse. 
The  conscience,  in  other  words,  may  be  marred  or 
developed.  The  adolescent  period  of  life  is  marked 
by  guidance  and  direction, —  at  times  by  the  mind 
and  at  others  by  the  heart.  The  conscience  needs 
to  be  trained  and  developed  to  act  as  a  firm  governor 
over  heart  and  mind.  It  must  be  the  seat  of  author- 
it}^,  the  guide  to  action,  the  source  of  judgment,  and 
a  helper  to  discriminate  between  right  and  wrong. 
It  means,  therefore,  the  utilization  of  every  moral, 
religious,  and  educational  influence  in  order  to  bring 
the  adolescent  conscience  to  the  high  point  of  effi- 
ciency of  which  it  is  capable. 

PLAY 

The  play  spirit  of  childhood  days  continues  into 
this  epoch,  but  with  a  modification  of  intensity  and 
specialization.  Boys  and  girls  of  this  age  have  a 
superabundance  of  physical  life  and  energy.  They 
are  fond  of  sports  and  games.  In  their  engagement 
they  need  little  encouragement,  because  their  interest 
is  spontaneous.  However,  they  need  directing  and 
guidance  so  that  their  play  will  conform  to  the  laws 
of  nature  and  prove  helpful  in  strengthening  their 
muscles   and  developing  those   powers   of  accuracy, 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  177 

judgment,  and  perception  which  plaj  such  vital  parts 
in  later  life. 

The  adolescent  youth  in  his  games  displays  re- 
markable powers  of  physical  endurance  and  strength. 
He  delights  in  these  games  in  which  strength,  skill, 
prowess,  and  ability  excel.  Girls,  too,  should  be  en- 
couraged to  enter  into  games  which  help  develop 
their  powers  of  body  and  mind  systematically  and 
symmetrically. 

This  interest  and  participation  in  games  should  be 
continued  by  both  sexes  all  through  life.  It  would 
be  well  for  every  man  if  he  would  preserve  some 
hobby,  such  as  tennis,  from  the  plays  of  his  adolescent 
life,  and  keep  on  with  the  game.  It  would  prove  a 
help  to  him  in  every  way. 

ANGER 

One  of  the  instincts  which  is  pronounced  in  child- 
hood and  in  adolescence  is  anger.  It  is  one  of  those 
traits  which  have  been  inherited  from  early  primitive 
man  and  which  appear  anew  in  each  individual  of 
the  race.  It  manifests  itself  particularly  in  the  fight- 
ing proclivities  of  boys  between  the  ages  of  ten  and 
thirteen  years.  It  is  also  common  to  girls  during 
this  period.  As  experience  widens  in  life,  anger 
arises  from  different  causes.  Temper  and  anger 
which  arise  in  later  adolescence  and  earlier  manhood 
and  womanhood  come  from  such  causes  as  jealousy, 
misunderstanding,   sarcasm,   selfishness,  etc. 

However,  there  is  a  place  for  righteous  indigna- 
tion, and  outbursts  of  temper  and  passion  must  be 
directed  and  controlled  in  the  right  manner.     The 


178  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

prevalence  of  wickedness,  sin,  corruption,  and  vice 
in  the  world  are  sufficient  to  arouse  righteous  indig- 
nation. We  applaud  the  efforts  of  reformer,  teacher, 
and  worker  in  striving  to  overcome  them. 

SYMPATHY 

This  sentiment  becomes  very  real  during  this  age. 
Even  at  its  best,  youth  has  only  a  limited  experience 
with  life,  yet  it  manifests  this  trait  to  a  marked  de- 
gree. The  tenderness  of  a  youth  about  fourteen  to 
sixteen  or  seventeen  years  shows  itself  in  various 
ways.  This  instinct  should  be  broadened  and  de- 
veloped so  that  it  will  touch  the  varied  forms  of  life 
and  be  manifested  in  higher  ideals  of  benevolence, 
love,  unselfishness,  kindness,  and  altruism. 

It  is  a  time,  perhaps,  when  a  mother  may  have  to 
work  hard  for  her  son,  and  he  wishes  to  get  to  work 
to  help  his  mother ;  or  perhaps  he  sees  the  need  of  a 
library  in  his  home  town  and  he  wishes  to  be  a  mil- 
lionaire to  build  a  library  building,  endow  it  for  his 
friends,  etc. 

LIFE  PLANS 

This  is  the  time  when  ambitions  obtain  strongly, 
and  plans  are  formed  as  to  the  vocation  to  be  pur- 
sued in  later  life.  Out  of  the  large  number  of  inves- 
tigations, "  What  children  wanted  to  be,"  conducted 
by  Dr.  Thurber  in  New  York  City,  a  summary  of 
what  he  found  is  the  following:  '*  Preference  for  a 
teacher's  life  exceeded  in  girls  up  to  nine,  fell  rapidly 
at  eleven,  increased  slightly  the  next  year,  and  de- 
clined thereafter.  The  ideal  of  becoming  a  dress- 
maker and  milliner  increased  till  ten,  fell  at  eleven, 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  179 

rose  rapidly  to  a  maximum  at  thirteen  when  it  eclipsed 
teaching  ,  and  then  fell  permanently  again.  The  pro- 
fessions of  clerk  and  stenographer  showed  a  marked 
rise  from  eleven  and  a  half.  The  number  of  boys 
who  chose  the  father's  occupation  attained  its  maxi- 
mum at  nine  and  its  minimum  at  tewlve,  with  a  slight 
rise  to  fourteen  when  the  survey  ended.  The  ideal  of 
tradesman  culminated  at  eight,  with  a  second  rise  at 
thirteen.  ...  At  twelve  we  find  the  altruistic  desire 
for  the  welfare  of  parents  the  reason  for  wishing  *  to 
earn  money  ' ;  at  thirteen  the  desire  on  the  part  of 
the  girls  is  to  be  dressmakers,  also  to  be  clerks  and 
stenographers.  At  fourteen  culminates  the  desire 
for  a  business  career  in  bank  or  office  among  the 
boys,  the  consciousness  of  life's  uncertainties  which 
appeared  first  at  twelve,  the  desire  for  character,  and 
the  hope  of  doing  the  world  good."  ^ 

At  the  age  of  seventeen  or  eighteen  years  the  3^outh 
begins  to  manifest  a  spirit  of  independence.  He 
shows  it  in  his  thinking,  religious  ideals,  dress,  and 
life  plans.  He  has  reached  that  point  when  he  thinks 
his  elders  are  "  old  fogies  "  and  conservatives,  and 
he  is  not  going  to  be  bound  by  narrow  restrictions. 
This  period  of  adolescent  life  is  also  another  danger 
point  in  the  youth's  life,  and  to  be  guided  safely 
through  it  usually  means  the  development  of  a  noble, 
manly  life. 

From  the  ages  of  seventeen  years  to  twenty-one  in 
3'ouths,  and  from  about  sixteen  to  nineteen  or  twenty 
in  girls,  are  the  periods  when  earlier  ideals  undergo 
changes  in  ethical  and  social  qualities,  due  to  ex- 
perience and  education. 

iHall:     Adolescence,  Vol.  II,  page  388. 


180  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

The  ideals  of  the  youth  should  be  encouraged  in 
order  that  they  may  be  directed  in  the  proper  chan- 
nels. He  will  treat  with  earnestness  his  plans  for 
life,  and  though  he  may  change  them  many  times, 
nevertheless  these  plans  should  not  be  passed  over 
lightly  by  parents  and  teachers,  but  he  should  be 
helped  toward  making  a  permanent  choice. 

RELIGIOUS  LIFE 

The  adolescent  period  is  the  golden  age  of  reli- 
gious decisions.  In  considering  the  religious  side  of 
this  era  we  are  met  by  two  kinds  of  experiences.  The 
first  which  is  revealed  is  the  life  of  the  individual  who 
has  from  birth  lived  in  a  religious  environment  and 
been  nurtured  in  religious  truth.  In  other  words, 
he  cannot  recall  in  his  experience  when  he  has  not 
known  something  of  religious  ideals.  The  second  is 
brought  out  by  the  experience  of  the  individual  who 
comes  to  a  religious  decision  during  this  epoch. 

However,  the  common  factor  of  the  experiences  of 
the  two  types  mentioned  is  the  will.  In  the  first, 
coincidental  with  the  development  of  the  religious  life 
was  the  development  of  the  will;  in  the  second,  the 
point  in  life  was  reached  when  the  need  of  religious 
ideals  was  recognized  and  the  will  became  therefore 
the  determining  factor  in  the  decision. 

Dr.  Starbuck,  who  has  made  careful  studies  of 
conversion  as  set  forth  in  his  book,  "  The  Psychology 
of  Religion,"  shows  that  conversion  is  a  distinctively 
adolescent  phenomenon.  It  belongs  almost  exclu- 
sively to  the  years  between  ten  and  twenty-five.  In 
the  rough,  we  may  say  they  begin  to  occur  at  seven 
or  eight  years  and  increase  in  number  gradually  to 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  181 

ten  or  eleven,  and  then  rapidly  to  sixteen;  rapidly 
decline  to  twenty  and  gradually  fall  away  after  that 
and  become  rare  after  thirty.  One  may  say  that 
if  conversion  has  not  occurred  before  twent}^,  the 
chances  are  small  that  it  will  ever  be  experienced. 
The  event  comes  earlier  in  general  among  the  females 
than  among  the  males,  most  frequently  at  thirteen  and 
sixteen.  Among  the  males  it  occurs  most  often  at 
seventeen  and  immediately  before  and  after  that 
year. 

Far  more  conversions  take  place  among  males  prior 
to  seventeen  than  at  any  other  period ;  among  females 
prior  to  fourteen  or  fifteen.  It  is  in  early  adoles- 
cence that  there  is  a  more  or  less  definite  clearing 
of  the  religious  atmosphere.  In  earlier  childhood 
the  ideas  of  God,  etc.,  have  been  external,  but  now 
they  take  root  and  become  a  part  of  his  nature. 

Some  of  the  experiences  preceding  conversion  may 
be  enumerated  in  a  general  way  as  follows :  convic- 
tion for  sin  proper ;  struggle  after  the  new  life ; 
prayers,  calling  on  God ;  sense  of  estrangement  from 
God ;  doubts  and  questionings ;  tendency  to  resist 
conviction ;  depression  and  sadness ;  restlessness,  anx- 
iety, and  uncertainty;  helplessness  and  humility; 
earnestness  and  seriousness,  etc.  These  experiences 
prior  to  conversion,  of  course,  are  the  resultant  of 
the  temperament  associated  with  the  individual. 

Dr.  Starbuck  well  says :  "  The  result  of  an  anal}'^- 
sis  of  these  different  shades  of  experience  coincides 
with  the  common  designation  of  this  pre-conversive 
state  in  making  the  central  fact  in  it  all  the  sense  of 
sin,  while  the  other  conditions  are  various  manifesta- 
tions of  this  as  determined,  first,  by  differences  in 


182 


THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 


temperament,  and  second,  by  whether  the  ideal  life 
or  the  sinful  life  is  vivid  in  consciousness." 
The  following  table  ^  is  illustrative : 


Passive 
Temperament 

Intermediate 

Active 
Temperament 

Ideal  life 

Estrange- 

Doubts   and 

Desire  for  a 

dominant    in 

ment  from 

question- 

better life 

conscious- 

God 

ings 

ness: 

Intermedi- 

Helpless- 

Restlessness, 

Earnestness, 

ate: 

ness, 

anxiety,  un- 

seriousness, 

humility 

certainty 

prayer 

Sinful    life 

Depres- 

Tendency to 

dominant    in 

sion, 

Sense  of  sin 

resist  con- 

conscious- 

sadness, 

version 

ness: 

meditation 

The  motives  leading  to  conversion  are  various. 
Each  individual  is  led  to  it  by  some  specific  step 
which  undoubtedly  has  something  in  common  with 
the  experiences  of  others  who  have  been  converted. 
The  following  table  is  not  exhaustive,  but  Dr.  Star- 
buck  has  brought  together  interesting  and  illustrative 
material  in  a  unique  way.^ 

In  studying  the  table  it  will  be  found  that  fear  of 
death  and  hell,  conviction  of  sin,  imitation,  and  so- 
cial pressure  are  the  most  frequent.  This  table  also 
shows  the  small  part  rational  considerations  play  in 
conversion  as  compared  with  instinctive  consider- 
ations. 

1  Starbuck :  Psychology  of  RELioioisr,  pages  58  and  59 ; 
table  8,  representing  the  different  ways  in  which  the  sense 
of  sin  shows  itself,  as  determined  by  temperament,  and  by 
whether  the  ideal  life  or  the  sinful  life  is  dominant  in  con- 
sciousness. 

2  Starbuck:    Psychology  or  Religion,  page  52, 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  183 

MOTIVES  AND  FORCES  PRESENT  AT  CONVERSION 

%  BOTH 
%  FE-         %  FEMAIJBS 

MALES    MALES    AND  MALES 


1. 

Fear  of  death  or  hell: 

14 

14 

14 

2. 

Other  self-regarding  mo- 

tives : 

S 

7 

6 

S. 

Altruistic  motives: 

6 

4 

5 

4. 

Following  out  a  moral 

ideal : 

15 

20 

17 

5. 

Remorse,  conviction  of 

sin,  etc. : 

15 

18 

16 

6. 

Response  to  teaching: 

11 

8 

10 

7. 

Example,  imitation,  etc.: 

14 

12 

13 

8. 

Social  pressure,  urging. 

etc.: 

W 

17 

19 

SUMMARY 

Sum  of  1  and  2  —  self-re- 
garding motives:  19  21  20 

Sum  of  3  and  4  —  other- 
regarding  and  ideal 
motives  21 

Sum  of  1  to  5  —  subjective 

forces :  55 

Sum  of  6  to   8  —  objective 

forces :  45 

We  have  already  noted  that  between  the  years 
eighteen  and  tw^cnty-five  another  readjustment  of 
religion  takes  place.  It  is  the  period  of  readjust- 
ment on  the  threshold  of  manhood.  There  is  less 
display    of   emotion   and   enthusiasm    over    religious 


24 

22 

63 

58 

37 

42 

184  THE  ESSENTIALS  OE 

matters.  The  earlier  forces  are  undergoing  a  proc- 
ess of  reconstruction  and  transformation  so  as  to 
be  more  adaptable  to  the  broadened  experience  and 
intellectual  development  of  life. 

It  is  at  this  time  that  doubts  appear.  The  broad- 
ening of  the  youth's  intellectual  experience  has  de- 
veloped the  spirit  of  inquiry.  He  is  not  so  willing 
to  accept  as  religious  truths  mere  statements  to  be 
bolstered  up  by  faith ;  he  wants  to  know  the  reason- 
ableness of  his  belief.  This  species  of  intellectual 
doubt,  which  is  usually  sincere  at  this  period  of  life, 
should  be  met  by  a  patient,  sympathetic  attitude  on 
the  part  of  teacher  or  parent.  The  doubting  atti- 
tude of  this  period  can  be  appreciated  because  it  is 
a  common  experience  of  a  growing,  developing  mind. 
As  the  adolescent  youth  comes  to  a  more  complete 
knowledge  of  religious  truth,  his  doubts  will  largely 
disappear.  However,  this  is  the  golden  opportunity 
for  the  Bible  School  teacher.  It  is  a  time  when  posi- 
tive, sincere  teaching  is  required.  By  careful  guid- 
ance and  broader  and  deeper  teaching  the  youth's 
horizon  may  be  enlarged,  and  he  can  be  led  out  of 
doubt  into  the  way  of  truth.  His  questions  can  be 
answered  and  his  faith  strengthened  and  his  knowl- 
edge increased. 

Dr.  Coe  says :  "  A  large  horizon  is  often  suffi- 
cient. A  doubt  as  to  the  inspiration  of  the  Scrip- 
tures can  best  be  met  by  exhibiting  the  growth  of 
the  self-revelation  of  God  of  which  the  Scriptures  are 
a  record.  One  who  appreciates  the  growth  of  the 
religious  consciousness  in  Israel  is  not  likely  to  be 
troubled  with  the  question  of  inspiration.  Similarly, 
doubts  as  to  the  person  of  Christ  may  well  be  met 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  185 

by  intensive  study  of  His  life  as  a  whole,  and  a  broad 
study  of  the  place  which  He  occupies  in  the  general 
religious  history  of  humanity."  ^ 

RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

As  has  already  been  intimated,  the  great  problem 
of  the  Bible  School  is  to  hold  the  boy  who  has  reached 
the  age  of  fourteen.  When  he  reaches  that  age,  he 
feels  that  he  has  graduated  from  it  and  that  he  has 
learned  all  the  school  can  teach  him.  There  is  pre- 
sented here  a  most  difficult  problem.  However,  we 
see  no  good  reason  why  the  adolescent  boy  should 
not  be  held,  and  give  to  the  school  the  service  and 
help  which  it  vitally  needs  and  has  reason  to  expect 
from  him. 

We  firmly  believe  that  Bible  School  teachers  for 
the  adolescent  period  of  boyhood  and  manhood 
should  be  males.  A  male  teacher  is  better  fitted  to 
enter  into  the  experiences  and  rapidly  developing 
changes  of  this  period  of  life  than  a  female.  Girls 
of  the  adolescent  era  are  less  likely  to  manifest  the 
attitude  toward  the  school  which  boys  show,  and  arc 
more  easily  held  to  its  regular  attendance. 

Where  the  teaching  is  of  a  strong,  positive,  and 
sincere  nature,  the  adolescent  youth  will  be  held.  It 
is  the  critical  and  inquiring  period  of  life,  and  his 
soul  has  an  unquenchable  thirst  for  knowledge.  He 
knows  when  a  teacher  is  unprepared  or  merely  passes 
over  the  vital  truths  of  the  lesson.  He  is  a  harsh 
taskmaster  with  respect  to  the  plans  pursued  by  his 
teacher.  He  has  every  reason  to  expect  his  teacher 
to  present  the  lesson  to  him  in  such  a  way  that  he 
1  Coe:     Education  in  Religion  and  Morals,  page  265. 


186  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

can  be  led  to  understand  the  difficult  problems  and 
helped  in  solving  them. 

The  present  movement  of  organized  classes  for 
boys  and  men  appeals  to  large  numbers  and  meets  a 
long  felt  need,  but  organization  is  not  the  crux  of 
the  problem.  The  solution  is  found  in  the  applica- 
tion of  consecrated,  intelligent,  and  practical  teach- 
ing. 

We  have  already  shown  that  this  is  the  great  con- 
version period  and  hence  the  great  recruiting  time 
for  church  membership.  When  the  Bible  School 
loses  the  youth,  the  church  likewise  suffers.  The  en- 
tire church  service  is  not  to  be  conducted  from  the 
viewpoint  of  the  adult  alone,  but  the  preaching, 
hymnology,  ritual,  and  worship  are  to  be  conducted 
so  that  it  will  also  appeal  to  the  adolescent  period. 
Upon  the  Bible  School  teacher  rests  in  large  measure 
the  responsibility  and  the  opportunity  to  direct 
young  people  to  membership  in  the  church,  where 
they  may  use  their  talents  for  active  service. 


CHAPTER  XI 

THE  TEACHER'S  REQUISITES 

Christian  —  Student  —  Patience  —  Positive  — 
The  Ideal  — The  Object. 

The  office  that  a  teacher  fills  is  a  divinely  appointed 
one.  It  is  a  commission  instituted  by  the  divine 
Master  himself.  It  is  a  vocation  fraught  with  great 
responsibilities  and  possibilities.  The  opportunities 
of  the  Bible  School  teacher  are  practically  limitless. 
His  is  an  opportunity  to  mould  the  life  of  a  child 
into  the  way  of  noble  character,  unselfish  service,  and 
spiritual  truth.  In  order  that  he  may  magnify  his 
office  certain  requisites  are  essential,  which  we  state 
as  follows : 

CHRISTIAN 

First  of  all  we  believe  that  the  Bible  School  teacher 
should  be  a  Christian.  In  John,  the  twenty-first 
chapter,  verses  15  to  17,  a  remarkable  conversation 
took  place  between  Christ  and  Peter  in  which  the 
Master  places  upon  Peter  as  teacher  and  disciple  the 
responsibility,  "  Feed  my  lambs,"  "  Feed  my  sheep." 
This  is  the  responsibility  laid  upon  every  teacher. 
This  is  the  commission  to  be  fulfilled  by  him  by  whose 
hand  the  future  destinies  of  men  and  women  shall  be 
largely  moulded.     Naturally  such  responsibility  im- 

187 


188  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

plies  spiritual  power  and  consecration;  these  things 
the  Bible  School  teacher  must  possess  in  large  degree. 
He  must  thoroughly  believe  that  the  Bible  is  the 
word  of  God,  and  must  manifest  this  belief  in  faith 
and  practice.  His  life  is  to  be  an  exemplary  one  and 
a  source  of  inspiration  to  his  class.  He  is  to  re- 
member the  words  of  Paul  to  Timothy,  and  follow 
after  righteousness,  godliness,  faith,  love,  patience, 
and  meekness.^ 

Naturally  the  statement  that  the  teacher  should 
be  a  Christian  implies  that  he  should  be  a  church 
member.  The  Bible  School  is  the  right  arm  of  the 
church,  and  from  it  the  members  of  the  church  are 
for  the  most  part  gathered.  The  teacher  is  to  guide 
his  pupils  by  precept  and  example  to  a  decision  for 
Christ  and  a  union  with  the  church.  Dr.  Coe  well 
says :  "  In  the  nature  of  things,  the  kingdom  of 
God  must  grow  chiefly  by  securing  control  of  young 
life.  The  religious  impulse  must  be  fed,  and  it  must 
be  led  on  to  realize  its  full  manhood  through  volun- 
tary obedience  to  Christ.  This  is  religious  educa- 
tion." ^  In  other  words,  the  Bible  School  teacher 
should  be  an  active  and  loyal  church  member. 

STUDENT 

The  teacher  should  be  an  earnest  Bible  student. 
The  Bible  is  the  great  text-book  which  he  will  use  in 
teaching.  He  should  not  only  know  all  about  the 
Bible,  but  he  should  know  the  Bible  itself.  Tlie  spirit 
of  the  Psalmist  should  be  shown  in  the  attitude  of  the 
teacher  in  his  study  of  the  Word, — "  His  delight  is 

il  Tim.  6:11. 

2  Coe:     Education  in  Religion  and  Morals,  page  39. 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  189 

in  the  law  of  Jehovah ;  and  in  his  law  doth  he  medi- 
tate day  and  night."  ^  His  study  should  be  marked 
by  earnestness,  thoroughness,  humility,  and  rever- 
ence. It  is  one  thing  to  read  the  Bible,  but  quite  an- 
other to  study  and  meditate  upon  it. 

It  would  be  well  for  him  to  have  also  an  intimate 
knowledge  of  literature,  biography,  history,  science, 
geography,  etc.,  as  these  will  be  a  great  help  to  him 
in  the  teaching  of  the  lesson,  and  will  serve  to  illus- 
trate many  Bible  truths  and  to  impress  these  truths. 

The  careful  study  of  the  Bible  means  the  enrich- 
ment of  the  store  of  knowledge,  so  that  the  teacher 
will  always  have  an  inexhaustible  well  of  truth  from 
which  to  draw.  Slovenly  and  careless  habits  in  Bible 
study  will  be  reflected  in  teaching,  and  eventually  in 
loss  of  control  and  influence  over  the  pupils.  Pro- 
fessor Payne,  in  his  "  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teach- 
ing," says  with  respect  to  habits  of  study  for  public 
school  teachers  something  which  will  apply  to  Bible 
School  teachers  as  well :  "  Unless  the  teacher  takes 
care  to  furnish  his  own  mind,  he  will  soon  find  his 
present  stock  of  knowledge,  however  liberal  that  may 
be,  feeding  from  his  memory  and  becoming  unavail- 
able. To  prevent  this,  and  to  keep  along  with  every 
improvement,  he  should  regularly  pursue  a  course  of 
study."  2 

PATIENCE 

Another  essential  requisite  is  patience.  Some- 
times the  opening  service  in  the  Bible  School  —  the 
singing,  reading  of  lesson,  etc. —  is  carried  on  in  a 

1  Ps.  1 :2. 

2  Payne:     Theory  akd  Practice  of  Teachikg,  page  69. 


190  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

rush  spirit.  It  causes  excitement  among  the  pupils, 
so  that  the  spirit  of  reverence  or  worship  is  de- 
stroyed. Then  the  teacher  catches  the  same  spirit 
and  seeks  to  rush  the  teaching  of  the  lesson.  Good, 
effective  teaching  cannot  be  done  hurriedly.  The 
teacher  who  tries  to  rush  his  work  with  his  class  will 
find  that  the  work  of  the  hour  is  largely  a  failure. 
The  pupils  are  raised  to  a  high  nervous  pitch,  their 
minds  are  in  an  unsettled  state,  and  they  will  fail  to 
grasp  the  truth.  Then,  too,  a  teacher  fails,  by  this 
rush  method,  to  bring  out  the  truths  which  he  would 
do  if  sufficient  time  were  given  to  develop  the 
truth. 

Sometimes  a  teacher  has  a  class,  some  of  whom 
are  unruly,  mischievous,  stupid,  and  indifferent 
pupils.  He  may  be  discouraged  and  feel  that  his 
teaching  is  unfruitful  and  that  his  time  is  wasted. 
This  is  just  the  time  when  he  needs  to  manifest  a 
patient,  kind,  and  tactful  spirit.  The  worst  thing 
he  can  do  under  such  circumstances  is  to  scold  and 
become  angry.  What  influence  he  might  otherwise 
have  over  his  class  will  be  destroyed  at  once.  His 
pupils  will  never  respond  to  his  efforts,  and  under 
the  circumstances  the  best  thing  he  can  do  is  to  re- 
sign. 

When  a  difficult  problem  like  this  confronts  him, 
let  the  teacher  meet  it  in  the  spirit  of  patience  and 
prayer.  Every  teacher  has  his  periods  of  discour- 
agement, but  the  times  of  encouragement  and  suc- 
cess are  far  greater.  When  a  teacher  is  acquainted 
with  the  home  life,  environment,  training,  and  per- 
sonal life  of  each  one  of  his  pupils,  he  will  know  how 
to   meet   such   problems   as   they   arise.     Instead   of 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  191 

wanting  to  resign,  he  will  want  to  remain  with  his 
class,  and  by  patient  and  tactful  teaching  bring  each 
one  to  the  higher  standard  of  living  taught  by  the 
Word  of  God.  The  lives  of  so  many  pupils  are  lack- 
ing in  the  ennobling  principles  of  life.  The  teacher 
needs  to  remember  that  his  is  a  high  and  holy  calling ; 
his  is  the  opportunity  to  teach  high  ideals,  to  lay  the 
foundations  for  nobler  living,  and  to  guide  young 
lives  to  the  goal  of  high  calling  which  is  found  in 
Christ  Jesus  our  Lord.  It  will  require  patient  effort, 
but  patience  born  of  infinite  love,  which  the  teacher 
should  have  for  each  of  his  pupils,  will  bring  ultimate 
victory. 

POSITIVE 

The  teacher  should  be  positive  in  teaching.  The 
Bible  School  is  no  place  to  teach  doubt,  scepticism, 
or  a  superficial  belief  in  the  Bible.  If  the  teacher  has 
any  doubt  concerning  the  essentials  of  religion,  he 
is  not  called  upon  to  fill  the  holy  office  of  teaching. 

Follow  the  example  of  Jesus,  our  master  Teacher, 
and  note  the  strong  positive  note  in  his  message.  His 
is  not  a  negative  message,  but  an  unfolding  of  the 
truth  in  terms  of  doing,  growing,  and  becoming.  The 
fulfillment  of  these  truths  is  to  be  found  in  the  indi- 
vidual personality,  interpreted  by  character  and  serv- 
ice. 

So,  likewise,  the  message  of  the  Bible  School  teacher 
is  to  be  constructive.  He  should  be  ready  to  meet 
any  questions  of  doubt  and  unbelief  which  may  be 
asked  him  by  his  pupils.  Many  questions  of  such 
a  nature  will  be  asked  out  of  ignorance.  His  is  the 
opportunity  to  dispell  doubt  and  unbelief  from  their 


192  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

minds  by  giving  them  the  truth  based  on  scientific 
investigation  and  a  thorough  study  of  God's  Word. 

THE  IDEAL 

We  have  mentioned  the  requisites  which  we  believe 
are  essential  for  every  Bible  School  teacher  to  possess. 
The  faithful  fulfillment  of  these  qualifications  will  in 
large  measure  be  the  determining  factor  in  a  teacher's 
success.  However,  these  requisites  are  not  everything 
in  a  teacher's  equipment.  He  needs  to  have  a  high 
ideal.  This  ideal  should  ever  be  before  him  as  a 
guide  and  model.  He  should  seek  to  make  his  equip- 
ment and  effort  conform  as  closely  as  possible  to  this 
ideal. 

Jesus  is  the  ideal  teacher.  He  is  the  ideal  of  every 
Bible  School  teacher  and  should  be  of  every  public 
school,  college,  and  university  teacher.  The  example 
of  Jesus  in  preparation  and  equipment  should  be  an 
inspiration  to  every  instructor.  He  realized  the 
great  responsibility  resting  upon  him  and  the  supreme 
importance  of  his  mission  among  men.  He  came  not 
to  be  ministered  unto,  but  to  minister.  He  came  to 
guide  humanity  into  the  way,  the  truth,  and  the  life. 
On  this  point  Dr.  Brumbaugh  significantly  says: 
"  What  was  the  equipment  of  Jesus  for  this  impor- 
tant work.^  We  have  only  a  few  glances  into  the 
rich  life  that  he  lived  to  the  age  of  thirty,  but  all  of 
these  are  significant,  and  indicate  that  he  was  steadily 
pursuing  a  definite  purpose  and  fitting  himself  for  a 
specific  service.  If  now  we  consider  what  he  did 
after  the  age  of  thirty,  we  are  led  to  the  conclusion 
that  all  these  earlier  years  were  spent  in  study,  in 
meditation,  in  prayer,  in  direct  communion  with  the 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  193 

Father.  There  may  have  been  times  when  he  be- 
came impatient  over  the  long  delay  of  the  time  when 
he  should  come  forth  and  teach.  If  this  were  the 
case,  we  have  no  hint  of  it  in  anything  that  he  said  or 
did.  On  the  contrary,  it  seems  reasonable  to  assume 
that  he  willingly  spent  thirty  years  preparing  him- 
self to  teach  for  three  years.  .  .  .  Because  his  prepa- 
ration was  so  unusual,  his  teaching  likewise  is  un- 
usual. He  was  never  confused  in  a  controversy.  He 
never  lacked  for  methods  to  teach.  He  never  failed 
to  grasp  the  right  conditions  under  which  to  teach. 
He  taught  with  power  because  he  was  thoroughly  pre- 
pared to  teach."  ^ 

THE  OBJECT 

Jesus  had  a  definite  object  in  His  teaching,  whereby 
He  sought  to  bring  the  human  will  into  right  rela- 
tions with  the  will  of  God.  He  himself  always  lived 
and  taught  this  great  principle.  Every  great 
teacher,  philosopher,  and  writer  has  had  some  definite 
object  which  he  desired  to  accomplish  by  his  teaching, 
philosophy,  and  writing.  The  same  should  be  true 
of  the  Bible  School  teacher.  There  should  be  some 
ultimate  aim  which  he  should  strive  to  achieve. 
That  object  or  aim  should  be  twofold:  (1)  charac- 
ter; (2)  training  of  the  will. 

When  we  mention  character,  of  course  we  mean 
Christian  character.  This  should  be  the  aim  of  every 
Bible  School  teacher, —  that  is,  that  the  truth  which 
he  teaches  should  be  productive  of  Christian  charac- 
ter ;  or,  as  Paul  sets  forth  the  aim  of  teachers,  "  For 

1  Brumbaugh:     The  Making  of  a  Teacher,  pages  264  and 
365. 


194  THE  ESSENTIALS  OE 

the  perfecting  of  the  saints,  with  the  work  of  minis- 
tering, unto  the  building  up  of  the  body  of  Christ; 
till  we  all  attain  unto  the  unity  of  the  faith,  and  of 
the  knowledge  of  the  Son  of  God,  unto  a  full  grown 
man,  unto  the  measure  of  the  stature  of  the  fitness  of 
Christ."  1 

Christian  truth  results  in  transforming  the  whole 
life.  It  is  the  power  which  brings  about  conversion 
and  decision  for  Christ  so  that  the  individual  may 
form  the  Christ  life  within  him.  This  should  be  one 
of  the  objects  of  the  Bible  School  teacher. 

The  training  of  the  will  should  be  his  next 
object.  The  training  of  the  will  to  properly  func- 
tionate, of  course,  begins  with  earliest  childhood. 
In  this  important  training  the  Bible  School  teacher 
has  a  most  vital  part  to  fulfill.  He  has  the  oppor- 
tunity to  guide  and  mould  the  child  mind  from  earliest 
and  through  later  childhood,  through  adolescence,  on 
up  to  maturity,  so  that,  step  by  step,  he  may  be 
taught  knowledge  of  good  and  evil  and  how  to  make 
choices  and  decisions  in  harmony  with  Christian 
truth. 

In  this  will  training  there  is  opportunity,  through 
the  lessons  of  the  Bible  School,  to  show  that  Christian 
character  is  found  in  the  fulfillment  of  the  Golden 
Rule  every  day  of  the  week.  The  Bible  as  the  great 
text-book  unfolds  innumerable  illustrations  whereby 
the  pupil  may  be  brought  to  a  knowledge  concerning 
the  making  of  right  choices.  The  application  of 
these  Bible  truths  to  the  pupil's  life  enriches  that  life 
in  character  and  service. 

The  training  of  the  pupil's  will  is  but  the  applica- 
lEphes.  4:12-13. 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  195 

tion  of  the  great  principles  as  set  forth  in  the  methods 
of  Jesus.  It  was  Jesus  who  said,  "  Be  ye  therefore 
perfect  even  as  your  Father  which  is  in  heaven  is 
perfect."  ^  In  other  words,  the  message  of  the  great 
Teacher  was  that  each  one  should  strive  after  per- 
fection of  soul.  This  he  showed  could  only  be  done 
by  making  the  huniran  will  act  in  harmony  with  the 
divine  Will.  Each  individual's  acts,  deeds,  and  words 
were  to  reflect  this  striving  after  perfection.  These 
things  could  only  result  from  a  will  perfectly  trained 
to  make  right  decisions. 

The  Master's  example  of  suffering  in  Gethsemane 
reveals  the  great  educational  principles  of  His  life 
work.  As  He  agonized  He  said,  "  Not  my  will,  but 
thine,  be  done.^  This  was  but  an  example  of  the 
harmony  of  the  Master's  will  with  God's.  Such 
should  be  the  aim  of  the  Bible  School  teacher. 


iMatt   5:48. 
2  Luke  22:39-49. 


CHAPTER  XII 

PREPARATION  AND  TEACHING 

The  Pupil  —  Study  —  Prayer  —  Step  hy  Step  — 
Reading  and  Helps  —  Discussion  Groups  —  Sugges- 
tions from  Others  —  Essential  Prvnciples  of  Teach- 
ing: adaptation;  attention;  system;  review;  variety 
—  Dr.  McMurry's  Suggestion  —  The  Rewards. 

In  the  preparation  of  the  Bible  School  lesson  there 
are  two  essential  points  to  be  remembered  by  the 
teacher:  (1)  knowledge  of  his  pupils;  (2)  careful, 
systematic  study. 

THE  PUPIL 

The  pupil's  life  must  be  well  known.  It  is  his  life 
that  the  teacher  must  influence,  bend,  and  direct. 
Teaching  will  be  ineffective  if  that  knowledge  is  lack- 
ing. There  must  be  an  intimate  knowledge  of  the 
home  life,  whether  it  is  a  Christian  home  or  not.  The 
teacher  should  also  know  something  about  the  ten- 
dencies of  his  pupil's  life  when  away  from  home ;  how 
he  spends  his  leisure  time;  the  nature  of  the  life  of 
his  associates.  He  should  know  how  much  interested 
each  one  is  in  study  and  reading,  his  daily  work,  and 
how  willingly  are  performed  tasks  which  are  depend- 
ent upon  each  one's  own  initiative.  In  fact,  every- 
thing should  be  known  that  can  possibly  be  known 
about  each  pupil. 

196 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  197 

STUDY 

In  the  study  of  the  lesson  tlie  teacher  should  be 
guided  by  the  needs  of  tlie  pupils  whom  he  expects 
to  teach.  He  sliould  have  each  pupil's  personality 
before  him,  and  should  outline  and  plan  his  lesson  in 
such  manner  that  some  distinctive  truth  will  be  de- 
veloped so  as  to  fit  into  the  peculiar  need  of  each 
pupil.  This  will,  of  course,  involve  careful  plan- 
ning and  systematic  work  and  study.  Thus  we  see 
how  essential  it  is  to  have  a  systematic  method  of 
study.  No  work  can  be  properly  done  or  accom- 
plished without  following  a  definite  plan  and  method. 
The  plan  must  be  effective  in  order  to  get  the  most 
out  of  the  lesson.  It  is  the  meaty  truth  which  is  to 
be  got  hold  of.  One  may  read  over  a  lesson  a  hun- 
dred times  or  memorize  the  verses,  but  these  plans 
will  not  be  study.  The  plan  must  involve  thought, 
mental  effort,  and  meditation  so  that  the  lesson  may 
be  rightly  imparted  to  others.  The  teacher  may  fol- 
low some  other  person's  plan  or  develop  his  own ;  the 
point  is  to  have  it  intelligent  and  effective.  Professor 
Gregory  suggested  the  following.  He  took  the  word 
"  Bible,"  and  each  letter  represented  some  word  essen- 
tial as  a  guide  and  method  in  study ;  for  example, 
"  B  =  hook  in  which  the  lesson  is  found  (as  the  Gos- 
pel of  Luke  or  John)  —  its  date,  writer,  contents,  ob- 
ject ;  I  =  intention  of  the  lesson  —  the  facts  included 
and  the  interpretation  of  these  facts ;  B  =  blessing 
and  benefits  to  be  gained  b}^  learning  and  obeying  this 
lesson ;  L  =  losses  likely  to  follow  failure  to  learn  and 
obey ;  E  =  exhortation,  experiences,  and  examples." 
Dr.  Vincent  has  suggested  the  following,  known  as 


198  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

"  The  Four  P's  and  the  Four  D's."  According  to 
this,  a  teacher  should  examine  the  parallel  passages 
of  Scripture  bearing  on  the  lesson ;  should  make  him- 
self acquainted  with  the  persons,  places,  dates,  and 
doings  covered  by  or  included  in  the  lesson;  and 
should  consider  the  doctrines  declared  and  the  duties 
involved  in  the  lesson  teachings." 

PRAYER 

But  before  the  lesson  is  studied,  the  first  factor  to 
be  noted  —  and  this  is  the  first  essential  of  the  plan 
to  be  followed  —  is  prayer.  We  need  to  spell  the 
word  in  capital  letters,  so  important  is  its  applica- 
tion in  the  preparation  of  the  teacher.  The  writer 
recalls  that  in  his  first  pastorate,  in  a  teachers' 
training  class  which  he  conducted  the  question  con- 
cerning the  teacher's  preparation  was  under  discus- 
sion. After  several  had  stated  what  they  considered 
to  be  the  first  essential  principle,  a  young  woman 
finally  said  that  her  view  was  prayer.  Then  she 
stated  that  she  never  began  the  study  of  her  lesson 
without  first  asking  for  spiritual  enlightenment  and 
divine  guidance.  She  brought  to  the  throne  of  grace 
the  individual  needs  of  her  pupils  as  she  understood 
them,  and  asked  for  wisdom  to  meet  those  problems 
and  needs  effectively.  Her  teaching  was  successful 
and  her  influence  over  her  class  was  little  short  of 
marvellous.  She  believed  in  putting  first  things  first, 
and  she  taught  as  she  prayed. 

No  teacher  can  afford  to  lose  sight  of  the  value  of 
the  prayer  life.  No  plan  or  method  will  be  effective 
unless  there  is  concentrated  and  consecrated  spiritual 
power  to  inspire  it  with  energy.     We  have  but  to 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  199 

pause  a  moment  and  see  that  prayer  occupied  the  fore- 
most place  in  the  active  and  strenuous  lives  of  Jesus, 
Paul,  Luther,  Calvin,  Zwingli,  Knox,  the  Wesleys, 
and  Moody.  Every  duty  was  first  prayed  over  and 
then  planned  to  he  performed. 

One  of  the  last  words  our  beloved  and  now  sainted 
Professor  of  Homiletics  gave  to  us  was  "  Young 
men,  pray,  pray,  pray,  before  3'ou  write  your  ser- 
mon." These  same  words  form  the  basis  upon  which 
the  Bible  School  teacher  is  to  work  in  the  preparation 
of  the  lesson. 

STEP  BY  STEP 

The  lesson  should  be  studied  step  by  step,  point  by 
point.  For  example,  if  a  series  of  lessons  on  a  new 
book  are  started,  the  first  thing  a  teacher  should  do 
is  to  read  as  much  as  possible  about  that  book.  In 
getting  this  information  he  should  read  the  best,  and 
books  written  by  writers  who  are  specialists  in  their 
subjects.  He  should  learn  all  he  can  about  the 
author  —  his  nature,  and  the  general  lessons  he 
writes  to  impress.  He  should  enrich  his  knowledge 
concerning  the  historical  events  of  the  time,  so  that 
the  historical  background  will  be  clearly  understood. 

The  introduction  of  the  lesson  should  be  studied 
from  various  angles,  so  that  its  historical,  social,  and 
religious  viewpoint  are  closely  fixed  in  his  mind.  The 
lesson  itself  should  be  read  over  carefully,  and  we 
believe  it  would  be  well  to  read  it  over  several  times 
that  the  story  may  be  clearly  impressed  on  the  mind. 
If  the  lesson  is  a  part  of  the  chapter,  it  would  be  well 
to  read  the  whole  chapter  several  times  as  well.  The 
preceding  and   succeeding  chapters   should   also   be 


200  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

read  in  order  that  the  connecting  events  may  be 
clearly  understood. 

The  lesson,  then,  should  be  studied  first  as  a  whole 
in  order  to  gain  a  general  idea  of  its  relation  to  the 
preceding  and  succeeding  part  of  the  book  as  a  part 
of  the  general  plan  of  the  work  as  set  forth  by  the 
author.  Then  should  follow  the  careful,  painstaking, 
intensive  study  verse  by  verse.  The  teacher  would 
do  well  to  write  down  an  analysis  of  the  whole  lesson. 
For  example,  perhaps  the  lesson  could  be  divided  into 
three,  four,  or  five  main  divisions.  Next  try  to  fill 
under  each  head  the  verses  which  belong  there.  Then 
should  be  made  subdivisions  applicable  to  each  main 
head  as  verse  by  verse  is  studied.  There  will  be  im- 
portant words  in  the  text  which  demand  close  scrutiny 
and  investigation,  and  these  should  be  given  careful 
study.  The  temptation  to  put  interpretation  upon  a 
verse  to  meet  some  preconceived  nature  and  opinion 
is  common  to  many  teachers.  This  is  just  what  it  is 
necessary  to  avoid.  There  should  be  no  effort  to  dis- 
tort or  to  read  into  a  verse  a  meaning  which  cannot 
be  found  there.  Interpretations  must  be  in  harmony 
with  the  historical  setting  of  the  book,  the  nature  of 
the  writer,  and  the  social  and  religious  ideals  which 
guided  him.  In  other  words,  the  interpretations  of  a 
writer  must  be  in  harmony  with  the  message  he  has 
enunciated. 

In  the  preparation  the  needs  of  one's  pupils  must 
be  continually  kept  in  mind  so  that  the  teaching  will 
be  adapted  to  them.  By  writing  down  the  various 
points  of  the  lesson  as  suggested,  the  lesson  will  be 
arranged  in  the  mind  in  an  orderly  fashion,  and  one 
will  be  able  to  present  it  more  clearly. 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  Wl 

In  the  study  of  the  lesson  will  be  found  more  ma- 
terial than  it  will  be  possible  to  teach  the  class.  The 
carefully  prepared  teacher  will  bring  out  the  truth 
which  the  class  needs  to  know.  The  question,  of 
course,  will  be  what  to  choose  and  what  to  put  aside. 
Experience  and  careful  study  will  help.  Dr.  Trum- 
bull says :  "  Your  study  must  include  a  great  deal 
more  than  an  acquaintance  with  all  the  multitudinous 
dishes  on  the  extended  bill-of-lesson-fare.  You  are 
to  decide  which  of  these  dishes  are  suited  to  your  par- 
ticular scholars,  with  their  tastes  and  needs  as  you 
know  them ;  for  unless  you  do  this  you  will  cram  your 
scholars  without  feeding  them,  or  they  will  famish 
while  you  are  expatiating  on  the  merits  of  dishes 
which  are  wholly  beyond  their  reach."  ^ 

The  Golden  Text  should  be  studied  very  carefully. 
It  should  be  used  to  illustrate  many  of  the  truths  of 
the  lesson.  It  should  not  be  quoted  as  a  verse  of 
Scripture,  but  something  should  be  told  about  the 
book  from  which  it  is  taken  and  the  occasion  which 
brought  forth  the  truth  as  contained  in  it.  The 
Golden  Text  should  be,  as  it  were,  a  golden  thread 
which  can  be  traced  through  the  whole  lesson. 

Then  the  preparation  of  the  lesson  should  be 
studied  so  that  the  teaching  will  bring  out  at  least 
one  prominent  and  distinctive  lesson  taught.  Some- 
times this  may  be  summed  up  in  the  Golden  Text.  It 
is  better  to  seek  for  a  particular,  distinctive  lesson 
which  can  be  developed  from  the  text  itself.  Once 
that  lesson  has  been  found,  tlie  final  preparation  of 
the  lesson  should  be  centered  and  focused  about  it. 

1  Trumbull:    Teaching  and  Teachers,  page  1^. 


20^  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 


READING  AND  HELPS 

A  teacher  should  be  a  voracious  reader.  That  is, 
he  should  read  all  the  books  and  magazines  and  peri- 
odicals which  his  time  will  permit.  Of  course,  it  is 
not  necessary  to  add  that  he  should  not  read  every- 
thing that  he  picks  up.  His  reading  should  be 
marked  by  careful  choice  and  selection.  He  should 
read  works  and  articles  which  are  worth  while,  which 
will  give  him  broad  and  comprehensive  information, 
and  knowledge  from  the  specialist's  viewpoint.  His 
reading  should  cover  history,  biography,  missionary 
activities,  the  social  and  religious  life  and  customs  of 
different  peoples,  travels,  Bible  discoveries  and  ex- 
planations, etc.,  all  of  which  will  be  helpful  in  giving 
him  broader  knowledge  for  his  work. 

The  teacher  should  use  all  the  helps  that  he  can, 
such  as  commentaries,  Bible  dictionaries,  geographies, 
etc.  These  works  will  stimulate  his  thought  and  be 
suggestive.  No  help  is  to  be  slavishly  followed,  but 
their  purpose  and  use  is  to  guide,  direct,  and  sug- 
gest. As  far  as  possible  be  an  independent  student 
and  thinker.  Do  not  accept  a  statement  just  be- 
cause some  commentator  has  put  his  imprimatur 
upon  it.  Invariably  it  is  his  opinion.  You  are  en- 
titled to  yours.  Test  his  statements  and  opinions 
by  your  own  experience,  study,  and  research.  In 
this  manner  your  independence  of  thought  and  study 
will  be  developed. 

DISCUSSION  GROUPS 

It  is  a  good  plan  for  the  officers  and  teachers  of  the 
school  to  meet  once  a  week  for  at  least  one  hour  in 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  203 

order  to  discuss,  and  to  talk  over  the  lesson  inform- 
ally. The  exchange  of  ideas  and  views  will  be  mutu- 
ally helpful  and  stimulating.  Have  a  leader  ap- 
pointed for  each  week  whose  duty  it  shall  be  to  out- 
line the  lesson  as  he  has  prepared  it  and  to  open  the 
discussion.  The  plan  is  not  to  have  a  formal  paper 
prepared  and  read,  because  this  would  defeat  the  very 
purpose  of  the  meeting.  The  leader  should  give  in 
a  general  and  informal  way  his  outline,  which  should 
be  full  of  hints  and  which  will  suggest  discussion. 
Through  this  conference  method  the  teachers  will  be 
drawn  into  a  closer  band,  and  many  difficult  points 
will  be  classified  and  solved. 

SUGGESTIOiXS  FROM  OTHERS 

"  Read  over  the  lesson,  read  it  in  different  transla- 
tions, in  the  original  if  you  can,  or  in  the  different 
languages  you  ma\^  know,  each  one  flashing  forth 
light  on  some  point  or  fact  not  seen  so  clearly  in  the 
others.  Some  truths,  too,  are  brought  out  more  dis- 
tinctly by  reading  the  passages  aloud. 

"  Note  that  it  is  important  to  read  the  whole  lesson 
and  not  merely  the  verses  selected  for  printing  in  the 
quarterlies,  *  the  gist  of  the  lesson.'  The  Interna- 
tional Lesson  Committee  has  always  implied,  and  for 
a  number  of  years  has  expressly  stated  with  each  les- 
son, that  the  lesson  is  more  than  the  verses  selected 
for  printing  and  detailed  study,  and  is  a  whole  section 
of  the  history.  Yet  there  are  not  only  teachers,  but 
even  lesson  writers  and  wise  critics,  who  have  '  an 
acute  attack  of  inadequate  information  '  on  the 
point.  But  no  good  teacher  confines  himself  to  the 
verses   printed   in    the   quarterlies,   nor   to    the   best 


204  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

'  helps.'  Read  the  whole  lesson  section  carefully 
if  the  lesson  be  historical ;  and  remember,  if  the  les- 
son is  doctrinal,  that  every  great  doctrine  is  revealed 
in  several  forms,  in  didactic  statements,  in  history, 
in  parable,  in  life,  and  in  song  —  and  we  need  them 
all  in  order  to  see  the  doctrine  as  it  really  is."  ^ 

Rev.  Drawbridge  says:  "  Having  (1)  isolated  one 
simple,  and  well-defined  idea  —  and  by  keeping  it 
before  the  mind,  allowed  it  to  grow  spontaneously 
—  it  is  necessary  (2)  to  set  to  work  to  think  it  out 
in  all  its  bearings.  In  this  way,  all  that  the  teacher's 
past  knowledge  and  experience  are  able  to  supply  is 
added  to  the  idea.  Then,  after  one  has  '  thought  one- 
self empty,'  it  is  necessary  (3)  to  '  read  oneself  full.' 
The  next  process  is  (4)  one  of  digestion  and  assimila- 
tion —  of  meditation  and  selection.  (5)  It  is  essen- 
tial to  make  a  skeleton.  Fold  a  sheet  of  paper  down 
the  center,  so  as  to  divide  it  into  two  parts.  One  side 
will  be  for  the  skeleton,  the  other  for  additions  and 
corrections.  Then  by  means  of  single  words  (or 
abbreviated  clauses)  indicate  each  idea.  The  object 
of  a  skeleton  is  to  secure  the  correct  sequence  of  ideas. 
In  order  to  do  so,  take  a  bird's  eye  view  of  the  whole 
lesson.  (6)  Rearrange  and  correct  the  skeleton  un- 
til the  sequence  of  ideas  and  their  relevancy  are  as 
perfect  as  it  is  possible  to  make  them.  Then  (7) 
cut  down  the  analysis  to  its  simple  form.  Boil  it 
down,  so  to  speak,  until  it  is  the  concentrated  essence 
of  the  lesson.  (8)  Print  it  in  large,  clear  type  and 
(9)  take  a  mental  photograph  of  it. 

"  You  now  know  mhat  you  are  going  to  teach.     It 

1  Peloubet:    The     Front    Like    of    the     Sunday    School 
Movement,  pages  73  and  74. 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  205 

remains  to  make  equally  sure  of  how  you  will  teach 
it.  (10)  Visualize  the  class,  and  keeping  them  before 
the  mind's  eye,  begin,  in  imagination,  to  teach  the 
lesson  you  have  prepared.  In  imagination,  question 
the  class,  illustrate  the  lesson,  recapitulate,  and,  in 
fact,  employ  all  the  teaching  devices  at  your  disposal. 
Thus  all  the  arts  of  which  you  are  master  will,  so  to 
speak,  clothe  the  skeleton,  and  complete  the  structure 
of  the  lesson.  (11)  Then  pray  for  grace  and  power 
to  do  justice  to  God's  truth,  and  (12)  forget  your- 
self in  your  message."  ^ 

ESSENTIAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

We  have  already  mentioned  that  there  are  certain 
essential  principles  to  be  observed  and  followed  in  the 
preparation  of  the  lesson,  and  the  same  is  true  of  the 
teaching  of  the  lesson.  The  results  of  preparation 
are  shown  in  teaching.  There  are  certain  funda- 
mental principles  in  teaching,  whether  it  is  done  in 
the  public,  private,  or  Bible  schools.  We  deem  essen- 
tial the  following: 

ADAPTATION 

The  instruction  which  is  to  be  given  must  be  adap- 
table to  the  age  and  needs  of  the  pupil.  We  would 
not  expect  the  same  history  lesson  which  is  taught  to 
the  high  school  student  to  be  taught  a  pupil  in  the 
elementary  grades.  The  same  principle  holds  good 
in  Bible  School  instruction.  Lessons  must  be  adapted 
to  the  age  and  intellectual  experience  of  the  pupil. 
The  social  and  spiritual  life  of  the  pupil  must  be  un- 
derstood in  so  much  that  the  instruction  may  be  made 

1  Drawbridge:     Trainixg  of  Twig,  pages  182  and  183. 


206  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

suitable  to  meet  his  needs  and  requirements.  Mr. 
Dubois  says :  "  No  teacher  more  carefully  selected 
his  material  according  to  his  pupils'  plane  of  expe- 
rience than  our  Lord.  As  has  been  shown,  Jesus 
went  to  the  people  at  their  point  of  contact  with  life, 
and,  though  a  carpenter,  he  never  drew  a  figure  from 
his  own  calling,  but  from  theirs."  ^ 

ATTENTION 

To  teach  a  class  effectively,  attention  and  cooper- 
ation of  each  pupil  is  very  essential.  Mr.  Trumbull 
writes :  "  It  has  been  often  counseled  as  a  funda- 
mental rule  in  teaching,  never  begin  a  class  exercise 
until  you  have  the  attention  of  every  scholar  in  the 
class.  Just  so  far  as  this  suggests  the  idea  that  you 
cannot  begin  to  teach  any  scholar  until  you  have  his 
attention,  the  rule  is  a  good  one.  And  as  applicable 
to  an  ordinary  class  where  the  scholars  are  reasonably 
well-informed  and  well-disposed,  and  are  fairly  in- 
clined to  be  learners,  it  is  a  rule  without  exception. 
Wherever,  indeed,  there  is  an  exception  to  the  rule, 
there  is  so  far  an  exception  to  the  necessity  of  teach- 
ing ;  for  teaching  without  attention  is  something  that 
never  was  done,  nor  ever  can  be  done."  ^ 

The  average  Bible  School  class  is  not  a  university 
graduate  school  class  where  the  scholars  sit  in  wrapt 
attention,  eager  and  ready  to  take  down  notes  from 
the  teacher's  lecture.  In  the  Bible  School  class  the 
pupil's  attention  must  be  awakened  if  it  is  to  be  held. 
The  teaching  cannot  be  mere  talking  on  the  part  of 
teacher ;  the  instruction  must  be  carried  on  in  such  a 

1  Dubois:     Poikt  of  Contact  ik  Teaching,  page  104. 

2  Trumbull:     Teaching  and  Teacher,  page  143. 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  207 

manner  that  interest  and  desire  for  knowledge  will  be 
aroused  on  the  part  of  the  pupils.  When  the  pupil 
cooperates  with  the  teaclier,  then  his  search  after 
truth  can  be  intelligently  directed. 

SYSTEM 

Systematization  is  the  next  principle  to  be  ob- 
served. Each  lesson  must  serve  as  a  connecting  link 
to  each  other.  For  example,  in  touching  upon  the 
introductory  portion  of  the  lesson,  the  statements 
should  be  made  clearly,  as  concisely  as  possible,  and 
in  an  orderly  manner,  so  that  the  pupil  can  follow  in 
brief  outline  the  thought  which  will  lead  up  to  the  les- 
son for  the  day. 

Definiteness  of  statement,  and  systematic,  orderly 
arrangement  of  the  lesson  material  must  mark  the 
teaching.  Teaching  is  a  gradual,  step  by  step,  evolu- 
tionary process.  To  begin  with,  the  pupil's  knowl- 
edge is  limited  or  marked  by  ignorance  and  stupidity, 
and  the  teacher  must  aim  to  be  clearly  understood  by 
the  dullest  pupil  in  the  class.  Consequently  each 
question  and  statement  of  historical,  doctrinal,  or 
practical  fact  must  be  set  forth  so  that  each  will  be 
in  logical  order  and  "  connect  itself  with  the  suc- 
ceeding thought." 

It  is  only  from,  and  by,  the  way  that  pupils  grasp 
known  facts  that  you  can  proceed  to  the  unknown. 
To  impress  upon  the  mind,  to  fix  securely  in  the 
memory  of  the  pupil  so  that  the  truth  will  be  part  and 
parcel  of  his  life,  your  teaching  will  have  to  be  rein- 
forced by  incident,  anecdote,  illustration,  diagram, 
and  object  lessons.  These  will  help  to  clinch  the 
truth,  arouse  the  interest  and  attention  of  the  pupil. 


W8  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

and  be  suggestive  for  questions.     Again  we  say  be 
orderly,  logical,  and  systematic  in  your  teaching. 

REVIEW 

Another  essential  principle  to  be  borne  in  mind  is 
review.  By  this  principle  we  mean  that  in  the  course 
of  the  presentation  of  the  lesson  there  is  need  for  con- 
stant review.  The  lesson  period  comes  but  once  a 
week  and  is  limited  to  a  half  or  three  quarters  of  an 
hour  at  the  most,  and  unless  truths  are  impressed  by 
constant  repetition,  it  is  more  than  likely  that  the 
pupil  will  have  forgotten  them  by  the  next  Sunday. 
The  teacher  should  aim  by  questions  to  clinch  various 
truths  already  presented  in  the  course  of  the  lesson. 
These  recurring  questions  can  be  arranged  in  an  or- 
derly manner  so  as  not  to  confuse  the  main  points, 
in  fact  they  will  help  to  firmly  fix  in  memory  the 
salient  points.  At  the  close  of  the  lesson  there  should 
be  a  number  of  review  questions,  the  answers  of  which 
should  briefly  summarize  the  main  truths  for  the 
day. 

VARIETY 

An  earnest  teacher  once  said :  "  I  lack  variety  in 
my  teaching."  This  experience  is  not  uncommon  by 
any  means.  Every  teacher  knows  that  in  teaching 
the  lesson,  the  more  varied  its  presentation  is  from 
previous  ones,  the  more  interested  the  class  seems  to 
be.  This  point  needs  to  be  constantly  borne  in  mind. 
Variety  in  plans  of  opening  and  closing  the  lesson, 
choice  of  illustrations,  and  attacking  the  lesson  from 
a  new  angle,  all  will  serve  to  overcome  monotony  in 
teaching.     The   class  will   also   show  responsiveness 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  209 

and  new  interest.     In  other  words,  the  teacher  should 
strive  to  teach  each  lesson  differently. 

DR.  McMURRY'S  SUGGESTION 

The  splendid  little  volume,  "  How  to  Conduct  the 
Recitation,"  by  Ur.  IMcMurry,  should  be  read  again 
and  again  by  every  teacher.  From  it  we  take  the 
following  suggestions   concerning  lesson   teaching. 

*'  First  Stage :  Presentation.  The  first  stage  may 
be  broken  into  two  smaller  half-day  journeys.  Be- 
fore setting  out  on  a  journe}^  it  is  well  to  survey  the 
road  and  glance  at  a  guide-book.  Before  beginning 
a  new  subject  it  is  well  to  recall  familiar  ideas  bearing 
upon  it,  to  refresh  our  minds.  This  is  a  preparatory 
study,  a  making  ready  for  the  lesson.  The  second 
part  is  the  actual  presentation  of  the  new  facts,  the 
familiarizing  the  mind  with  the  new  subject. 

**  The  subject-matter  is  now  at  hand,  and  the  first 
stage  of  teaching  the  lesson  is  complete.  But  the 
newly  acquired  information  has  not  yet  settled  to  its 
proper  place  in  the  mind ;  it  is  not  properly  associated 
with  previous  knowledge. 

"  Second  Stage :  Elaboration  —  This  elaboration 
of  newly  presented  ideas  and  facts  leads  us  through  a 
series  of  three  additional  steps,  which  thus  completes 
the  process  of  acquisition: 

"(1)  The  new  object  is  compared  with  similar 
things  already  in  the  mind.  In  this  way  it  finds  its 
fitting  companionship. 

"  (J^)  Every  new  object  presented  to  the  mind  and 
then  compared  with  others  gives  rise  to  new  conclus- 
ions. The  clear  statement  of  this  general  result  or 
truth  focuses  the  main  idea  of  the  lesson. 


210  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

"  (3)  This  general  truth  may  now  be  exemplified  in 
new  cases  and  applied  to  new  circumstances. 

"Briefly  stated,  the  steps  are  as  follows:  (1) 
preparation;  (S)  presentation;  (3)  association  and 
comparison;  (4)  generalization;  (5)  practical  ap- 
plication. 

"  It  is  to  be  remembered  that  a  subject  to  be 
treated  in  this  manner  must  contain  a  unity  of 
thought;  it  must  center  in  an  object  which  is  typical 
of  a  class,  so  as  to  serve  as  a  basis  of  comparison  and 
generalization." 

THE  REWARDS 

The  rewards  of  the  teacher  are  not  to  be  thought 
of  in  dollars  and  cents.  His  rewards  come  to  him  in 
the  joy  of  his  work;  the  development  of  individual 
character  modeled  and  patterned  after  the  master 
Teacher,  Jesus ;  the  inculcating  of  ideals  of  benevo- 
lence and  service.  The  teacher  is  a  leader  and  guide 
and  director  of  human  destiny.  Great  is  his  joy  when 
he  sees  his  earnest  work  and  zealous  effort  bear  fruit 
in  manhood  and  womanhood  of  noble  Christian  char- 
acter. He  sees  that  his  work  has  been  blessed  by  the 
Holy  Spirit,  and  that  as  he  sought  to  instruct  the 
growing  and  developing  mind,  his  teaching  has  been 
fruitful. 

The  preeminence  of  teaching  may  be  summed  up  in 
the  words  of  the  poet : 

'"Sow  a  thought  and  reap  a  deed, 
Sow  a  deed  and  reap  a  habit, 
Sow  a  habit  and  reap  a  character. 
Sow  a  character  and  reap  a  destiny." 


CHAPTER  XIII 

QUESTIONS  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS 

Questions:  cormectmg  links;  examples;  intelligi- 
hiLity  —  Illustrations:  sources;  nature;  history; 
biography ;  art;  geography ;  the  Bible. 

QUESTIONS 

It  has  been  well  said  that  to  ask  questions  is  a  fine 
art.  So  it  is.  There  are  questions  and  questions. 
In  order  to  ask  proper  questions,  study,  thought,  and 
effort  are  required.  Questioning  holds  a  most  impor- 
tant place  in  teaching.  Perhaps  we  are  not  extrem- 
ists when  we  say  that  teachers  can  only  be  called  suc- 
cessful when  they  know  how  to  question  properly. 
A  teacher  may  be  able  to  explain  a  lesson,  lecture 
upon  it,  and  yet  be  unable  to  ask  questions  intelli- 
gently. A  question  intelligently  asked  and  properly 
answered  will  impress  the  truth  upon  the  child's 
mind,  and  he  will  grasp  it  better  than  by  any  other 
method  of  teaching. 

The  same  thing  is  true,  too,  with  respect  to  ado- 
lescent and  adult  classes.  We  believe  that  it  is  the 
general  testimony  of  Bible  School  teachers  that  fol- 
lowing the  lecture  method  entirely  is  not  the  best  plan 
to  present  the  lesson.  With  older  classes  we  realize 
that  more  lecture  work  can  be  done,  but  the  real  in- 
terest and  worth  of  the  lesson  is  found,  on  the  part 

211 


212  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

of  the  class,  when  discussions  follow  as  the  result  of 
questions  asked  by  the  teacher. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  in  asking  questions  that 
the  attainment  of  proper  results  is  dependent  upon 
two  factors,  namely,  a  prepared  teacher,  and  a  pupil 
who  has  carefully  studied  his  lesson.  It  is  utterly 
impossible  for  a  teacher  to  expect  to  get  proper  an- 
swers to  his  questions  when  a  pupil  knows  compara- 
tively little  about  the  lesson.  Herein  is  found  an- 
other problem  confronting  the  Bible  School.  The 
vast  majority  of  schools  do  not  permit  the  pupils  to 
take  the  lesson  pamphlet  home  to  study  the  lesson. 
The  excuse  invariably  given  is  that  the  pupils  will 
lose  their  books,  and  will  not  study  the  lessons  any 
Avay,  and  the  schools  cannot  afford  to  buy  new  pam- 
phlets continually.  It  is  truly  unscientific  in  man- 
agement and  unpedagogical  in  principle  to  expect 
definite  and  constructive  results  to  be  achieved  by 
following  such  plans. 

Our  Bible  Schools  need  to  set  a  higher  standard  for 
lesson  study  as  well  as  teaching.  Some  kind  of  an 
educational  plan  needs  to  be  put  into  operation 
whereby  sentiment  and  conviction  shall  result  in 
bringing  about  some  home  study  on  the  part  of  the 
pupils.  We  believe  sufficient  emphasis  has  been 
placed  on  teacher  training  and  preparation;  more 
emphasis  should  be  placed  on  the  pupil's  study. 
There  is  not  much  incentive  for  a  teacher  to  labor 
early  and  late  in  careful,  conscientious  preparation, 
and  then  to  meet  his  class  on  Sunday  and  find  that  not 
one  of  them  knows  the  subject  of  the  lesson.  If  we 
have  home  study,  we  will  have  better  teaching,  and 
larger  results  will  be  accomplished. 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  213 

In  these  respects  tlie  Bible  School  can  learn  a 
much  needed  lesson  from  the  day  school.  Pupils  of 
the  latter  are  provided  with  study  periods,  and  the 
home  stud^^  work  is  reduced  to  a  minimum.  It  would 
not  be  impossible  for  the  pupils  of  each  Bible  School 
to  meet  at  the  church,  for  a  short  time  at  least,  to 
study  the  lesson.  This  plan  could  be  carried  out 
under  the  direction  of  a  capable  officer  of  the  Bible 
School.  If  this  is  not  feasible,  a  little  study  can  be 
done  at  home,  and  it  will  not  conflict  with  public 
school  work.  The  pamphlets  will  not  be  destroyed 
or  lost  in  large  numbers  if  the  pupils  know  what  the 
Bible  School  authorities  expect  from  them.  If  the 
pupils  are  asked  to  take  good  care  of  their  books  and 
to  bring  them  in  good  condition  to  the  school  each 
Sunday,  the}^  will  respond  to  the  request. 

CONNECTING    LINKS 

Questions  should  be  connecting  links,  connecting 
lesson  to  lesson ;  that  is,  questions  should  be  asked 
which  will  serve  as  a  review  of  last  Sunday's  lesson 
and  as  an  introduction  to  the  lesson  for  the  day. 
The  day's  lesson  should  be  so  planned  that  several 
main  questions  will  give  an  outline  of  it ;  then  there 
should  be  subsidiary  questions  which  will  bring  out  its 
minor  and  yet  necessary  points.  As  the  lesson  is 
studied,  the  teacher  should  occasionally  ask  review 
questions  which  will  serve  as  connecting  links  to  hold 
together  the  truth  as  it  is  developed.  As  the  hour 
comes  to  a  close,  the  teacher  should  gradually  sum  up 
the  lesson.  Questions  of  a  review  nature  should  also 
be  asked,  the  answers  of  which  will  summarize  briefly 
the  day's  teaching. 


214  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

EXAMPLES 

Many  teachers  complain  that  they  cannot  ask  ques- 
tions. This  is  indeed  possible.  It  requires  practice 
and  study  to  ask  questions  in  the  proper  way.  A 
teacher  should  study  his  own  mental  condition  and 
the  needs  which  prompt  him  to  ask  questions  in  order 
that  his  personal  requests  may  be  satisfied.  He 
realizes  that  his  questions  are  answered  for  him  per- 
sonally when  his  requests  are  fulfilled.  So  the  teacher 
should  prepare  his  lesson  and  adapt  his  questions  to 
meet  the  needs  of  his  class.  He  should  study  ex- 
amples like  Jesus  and  Socrates.  Each  was  a  master 
in  the  art  of  questioning.  Read  that  remarkable 
chapter,  Matthew  the  sixteenth,  and  in  it  you  will 
note  that  each  question  unfolds  a  distinctive  truth. 
That  is  the  idea  of  questioning,  so  that  the  lesson 
may  be  unfolded  step  by  step  and  in  a  connected  way. 
Each  question  grows  out  of  the  preceding  one,  and  in 
this  way  truth  is  classified  and  understood.  The 
same  was  true  of  Socrates,  and  in  the  dialogues  re- 
corded by  Plato  we  will  note  how  his  question  went 
directly  to  the  point ;  it  could  not  be  misunderstood. 

Again,  study  the  example  of  a  little  child  and  note 
how  carefully  he  will  ask  questions.  His  curiosity 
at  first  prompted  him  to  ask  something  about  an  ob- 
ject. Then  one  question  suggested  another  until,  in 
his  childish  way,  he  had  attacked  the  subject  from  all 
sides,  and  his  limited  vocabulary  and  experience  pre- 
vented him  from  going  deeper  into  the  matter.  By 
careful  study,  observance,  and  practice,  the  art  of 
questioning  will  be  developed,  and  experience  will 
gradually  make  one  more  adept  in  it. 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  215 


INTELLIGIBILITY 

Every  question  should  be  put  in  language  which  is 
simple,  plain,  and  understood.  It  is  a  mistake  to  ask 
questions  which  are  involved.  Follow,  for  example, 
the  lawyers  who  are  expert  in  cross-examining  wit- 
nesses;  their  questions  are  framed  in  simple,  clear, 
concise  language.  Professor  Fitch  has  well  stated, 
"  If  we  want  to  prepare  the  mind  to  receive  instruc- 
tion, it  is  worth  while: 

"  (1)  To  find  out  what  is  known  already,  and  what 
foundation  or  substraction  of  knowledge  there  is  on 
which  to  build. 

"  (2)  To  clear  away  misapprehension  and  ob- 
struction from  the  mind  on  which  we  wish  to  operate. 

"  (3)  To  excite  curiosity  and  interest  on  the  part 
of  the  learners  as  to  the  subject  which  it  is  intended 
to  teach."  ^ 

Unless  a  question  is  framed  in  simple  language  and 
clearly  stated,  the  answer  will  not  be  what  should  be 
expected.  The  four  words  generally  used  in  asking 
questions  are  zcliat,  which,  how,  and  why,  and  yet  in 
our  conversations  those  words  are  seldom  used  cor- 
rectly. In  framing  a  question  these  words  should  be 
used  correctly.  A  question  should  be  so  stated  that 
more  than  a  mere  "  Yes,"  or  "  No  "  must  be  given  in 
the  answer.  A  sentence  as  an  answer  should  be 
sought  after,  although  of  course  this  is  not  always 
required,  as  it  depends  upon  the  question.  In  ques- 
tioning, there  should  be  variety  as  to  the  nature  of 
the  answers  required. 

In  order  to  bring  out  the  truths  of  the  lessons  as 

1  Fitch:     The  Art  of  QrzsnoKijrG,  page  10. 


216  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

adapted  to  the  needs  of  each  particular  class,  the 
teacher  should  not  depend  upon  the  questions  found 
in  the  lesson  journal.  These  may  be  used  as  hints 
and  suggestions,  but  they  should  not  be  so  slavishly 
followed  as  to  be  used  exclusively.  In  asking  ques- 
tions the  teacher  should  never,  for  example,  read  off 
a  line  of  Scripture  and  then  end  it  in  a  question,  "  Is 
that  so  ?  "  etc.  Such  plans  defeat  the  very  purpose 
of  questions,  namely  to  get  the  pupils  to  think. 
There  should  be  freedom  of  discussion  in  which  the 
pupils  should  be  so  vitally  interested,  as  the  result  of 
the  enthusiasm  aroused  by  the  teacher,  that  they  will 
question  each  other  and  likewise  the  teacher.  When 
this  mental  activity  is  shown,  the  teacher's  questions 
have  gripped  the  pupil's  minds  and  definite  results  are 
being  accomplished.     Professor  Fitch  says  : 

"  It  ought  to  set  the  learners  thinking,  to  promote 
activity  and  energy  on  their  parts,  and  to  arouse  the 
whole  mental  faculty  into  action,  instead  of  blindly 
cultivating  the  memory  at  the  expense  of  the  higher 
intellectual  powers.  That  is  the  best  questioning 
which  best  stimulates  action  on  the  part  of  the 
learner;  gives  him  a  habit  of  thinking  and  inquiring 
for  himself ;  which  tends  in  a  great  measure  to  render 
him  independent  of  his  teacher;  which  makes  him  in 
fact  rather  a  skillful  finder  than  a  patient  receiver 
of  truth.  All  our  questioning  should  aim  at  this; 
and  the  success  of  our  teaching  must  ever  be  meas- 
ured, not  by  the  amount  of  information  we  have  im- 
parted, but  by  the  degree  in  which  we  have  strength- 
ened the  judgment  and  enlarged  the  capacity  of  our 
pupils  and  imparted  to  them  that  searching  and  in- 
quiring spirit  which  is  a  far  surer  basis  for  all  future 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  217 

acquisitions  than  any   amount  of  mere  information 
whatever."  ^ 

ILLUSTRATIONS 

Closely  related  to,  and  a  part  of,  the  teacher's 
question  is  and  should  be  ilhistrative  or  object  teach- 
ing. Sometimes  a  difficult  question  can  be  made 
clearer  by  having  some  story  to  illustrate  the  point. 
The  objective  appeals  to  the  child's  mind.  He  can 
be  brought  to  understand  difficult  principles  by  con- 
crete teaching.  The  content  of  the  child  mind  from 
the  religious  viewpoint  is  such  that  it  responds  readily 
to  such  teaching.      Dr.  Hall  says : 

"  One  of  the  most  striking  and  interesting  results 
of  modern  psychological  studies,  or  studies  in  the 
growth  of  the  souls  of  children,  consists  in  showing 
with  such  overwhelming  masses  of  evidence  how  every 
child  repeats  the  history  of  the  race  in  its  religious 
development.  It  is  a  fetich-worshipper.  Every 
child  that  has  a  fair  chance  at  life  passes  through  the 
stage  of  being  a  fetich-worshipper.  Examine  the 
contents  of  a  boy's  pocket ;  you  will  find,  very  prob- 
ably, a  pretty  stone,  a  bit  of  lead,  a  curious  piece  of 
coal  or  old  junk,  iron,  or  ore,  or  a  lot  of  these  things ; 
or  a  knot  of  wood  with  a  curious  spot  in  it  —  some- 
thing that  he  has  perhaps  carried  in  his  pocket  for  a 
long  time.  In  severe  weather  it  is  wrapped  up  so 
that  it  won't  feel  cold.  It  is  taken  with  the  child 
wherever  he  goes,  so  that  it  will  have  been  to  New 
York,  Philadelphia,  and  Boston,  and  shared  the 
child's  experiences.  The  temperature  is  regulated 
for  its  benefit.     And  sometimes  we  find  this  fetich- 

1  Fitch:     The  Art  of  Questionixg,  page  33. 


218  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

worship   surviving  very   curiously   in  different  per- 
sons." ^ 

Thus  it  is  seen  that  the  objective  plays  a  prominent 
part  in  the  development  of  the  child  life.  Stories,  to 
be  effectively  used,  must  be  applicable  to  the  point. 
They  are  always  interesting  to  children,  but  to  use 
them  for  their  own  sake  should  not  be  done.  Illus- 
trations should  be  narrated  in  plain,  simple,  and 
chaste  language.  In  this  respect  study  the  parables 
which  Jesus  used  to  illustrate  his  teachings.  The 
language  he  uses  is  so  plain  that  a  child  can  grasp 
his  meaning.  By  his  narration  one  is  able  to  see  in 
clear,  distinct  outline  what  he  desires  to  teach.  It 
is  often  very  difficult  to  tell  a  story  in  an  effective 
way  and  to  bring  out  the  application,  but  study  and 
experience  will  remedy  this. 

SOURCES 

One  of  the  difficult  problems  frequently  confront- 
ing the  teacher  is  where  to  get  material.  Many 
teachers  have  had  only  limited  experience,  and  they 
are  unable  to  draw  on  a  large  store  of  information. 
Many  resort  to  the  plan  of  consulting  stock  stories 
which  are  compiled  and  issued  in  book  form  under 
various  topics.  But  this  is  too  mechanical,  and  the 
stories  invariably  found  there  are  old  and  are  often 
impossible  to  fit  into  the  requirements  of  the  teacher. 
Teachers  will  invariably  find  this  method  too  wooden 
to  be  used  satisfactorily.  From  one's  reading,  ob- 
servation, and  experience  sufficient  illustrations 
should  be  found  to  meet  one's  needs.     We  believe  the 

iHall:    The  Religious  Content  of  Child-mind,  page  169. 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  219 

following  suggestions  will  prove  helpful  as  sources 
from  which  to  glean  story  material. 

NATURE 

Nature  ahounds  with  an  unlimited  amount  of  ma- 
terial to  provide  object  lessons.  Here  abound  in- 
numerable illustrations  showing  God's  love  and  provi- 
dence, manifested  in  such  striking  ways  that  the  les- 
sons are  obvious.  Nature-study  appeals  to  the  child 
life,  and  children  respond  readily  to  its  teachings. 
For  example,  Dr.  Hall  says :  "  Who  has  not  seen 
some  of  this  Nature  love  very  obvious?  The  little 
girl,  perhaps,  talking  to  the  flowers,  thinking  they 
speak  to  her,  saying  her  prayers  to  them,  wishing  and 
hoping  they  won't  be  cold,  and  covering  them  up, 
not  to  save  them  from  wilting,  nor  because  there  is 
any  danger  of  frost,  but  that  they  may  feel  the 
warmth  she  wishes.  She  imagines  she  hears  voices 
whispering  in  the  trees."  ^ 

It  will  be  worth  while  to  take  the  pupils  to  the 
forests,  fields,  and  streams,  and  to  show  them  Nature 
at  her  best  and  teach  them  the  lessons  which  are  re- 
corded there. 

HISTORY 

This  is  another  fruitful  source.  Here  abound 
stories  of  heroism,  valor,  self-sacrifice,  and  self-denial 
which  are  perennially  fresh.  These  illustrations  are 
interesting  to  all  ages,  and  particularly  to  the  ado- 
lescent who  is  fond  of  hearing  and  knowing  about  the 
heroes  of  the  world.     The  Bible  School  teacher  should 

1  Hull:     Religious  Content  of  Child-mind,  page  170. 


£20  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

be  fond  of  history  and  should  read  it  continually.     It 
will  enrich  and  broaden  his  teaching. 

BIOGRAPHY 

A  peculiar  trait  common  to  all  of  life  is  its  interest 
in  personalities.  This,  the  study  of  biography  brings 
out.  Biography  is  one  form  of  historical  study,  but 
along  narrower  and  more  restricted  lines.  For  ex- 
ample, the  various  ideals  of  the  men  and  women  who 
have  left  their  impress  upon  the  world  for  righteous- 
ness furnish  abundant  illustrations.  These  facts 
broaden  the  knowledge  of  the  pupils  and  also  lay 
foundations  in  their  own  lives  for  noble  ambitions  and 
aspirations.  These  illustrations  will  interest  the 
children  to  read  for  themselves  more  in  detail  concern- 
ing the  characters  mentioned.  Biography  appeals 
particularly  to  pupils  about  thirteen  and  fourteen 
years  of  age  and  upwards.  Dr.  McMurry  says : 
"  These  biographies  furnish  an  excellent  outline  for 
the  other  Bible  facts  that  are  later  to  be  acquired. 
That  is  one  element  of  their  worth.  When  children 
have  become  men  and  women,  they  are  greatly  in  need 
of  a  framework  in  which  to  fit  whatever  additional 
facts  they  learn."  ^ 

ART 

Here  is  a  field  in  illustration  that  is  not  fully  ap- 
preciated by  the  average  teacher.  Think  of  the 
opportunity  afforded  the  teacher  who  lives  in  a  large 
city  or  town  where  there  are  art  galleries,  to  visit 
and  study  the  masterpieces,  and  also  to  take  his  class 

1  McMurry:    Biography    ik     Religious    Instruction,    page 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  221 

and  explain  the  pictures  to  them.  Many,  many 
times  the  opportunity  will  arise  to  illustrate  the  truth 
which  a  description  of  a  certain  picture  will  meet. 
The  teacher  can  refer  to  the  picture  in  the  art  gallery 
which  the  class  visited,  and  at  once  it  will  be  recalled 
to  their  minds. 

To-day  very  good  and  comparatively  cheap  prints 
of  the  masterpieces  may  be  purchased.  The  children 
should  be  encouraged  to  make  collections  of  these,  for 
they  will  serve  as  a  source  of  valuable  information  to 
them  when  they  grow  to  manhood  and  womanhood. 
The  teacher  who  thus  encourages  his  pupils  will  make 
his  teaching  more  effective  and  interesting,  and  his 
illustrations  from  art  will  be  appreciated  and  under- 
stood. 

GEOGRAPHY 

Very  important  for  the  teacher  to  know  is  the  geog- 
graphy  of  Bible  times.  He  should  be  as  well  ac- 
quainted with  the  places  mentioned  in  the  lessons  as 
he  is  with  the  way  from  his  house  to  the  Bible  School 
room.  We  do  not  mean,  of  course,  that  he  is  to  be 
actually  acquainted  with  all  the  details,  but  he  should 
be  able  to  speak  intelligently  about  the  places  that 
come  up  in  the  lesson.  By  knowing  the  geography 
of  these  places  and  from  his  knowledge  of  general 
history,  he  will  be  able  to  supplement  biblical  truth 
with  additional  information. 

It  is  very  important  to  persuade  the  pupil  to  ac- 
quaint himself  with  biblical  geography.  Very  few 
teachers  pay  any  attention  to  the  maps  in  their  lesson 
pamphlets  or  direct  the  pupils'  attention  to  the  maps 
in  theirs.      These  maps  should  be  carefully  studied 


22^  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

each  Sunday  in  conjunction  with  the  lesson.  The 
pupils  can  understand  the  lesson  intelligently  only 
when  its  geography  is  clearly  understood. 

For  example,  in  studying  the  missionary  journeys 
of  Paul,  how  interesting  and  helpful  those  lessons  can 
be  made  when  the  map  is  referred  to.  Then  the 
teacher  can  supplement  the  Bible  story  with  events 
which  took  place  here  and  there  and  which  were  epoch- 
making  in  the  history  of  the  world.  Careful  study 
of  biblical  geography  becomes  helpful,  therefore,  to 
teachers  and  pupils  alike.     Professor  Kent  says : 

"  No  longer  is  it  possible  to  see  with  the  physical 
eye  the  peoples  whose  life  and  thoughts  are  recorded 
in  the  Bible ;  but  we  may  view  through  our  own  eyes 
or  those  of  modern  travellers  the  scenes  of  their 
activity.  A  personal  interest  is  at  once  aroused, 
which  is  shared  by  the  youngest  as  well  as  the  oldest 
pupil.  Thus  biblical  geography  furnishes  a  natural 
and  concrete  introduction  to  each  department  of  Bible 
study."  1 

THE    BIBLE 

Perhaps  it  will  seem  strange  that  the  Bible  should 
be  mentioned  as  one  of  the  sources  from  which 
teachers  may  glean  illustrations  and  object  lessons. 
We  should  remember  that  the  time  that  the  Bible 
School  spends  in  the  study  of  the  Word  is  utterly 
insufficient  to  accomplish  the  great  results  in  charac- 
ter and  service  which  we  have  reason  to  expect  from 
so  important  an  institution.  The  teacher  should 
aim  to  supplement  this  instruction  and  knowledge  for 
his  class  as  much  as  possible.     To  meet  this  require- 

1  Kent:    Geography  in  Religious  Instruction,  page  216. 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  2^3 

ment  Bible  illustrations  afford  a  splendid  oppor- 
tunity. It  is  not  sufficient  for  the  teacher  to  read 
his  Bible  through  so  many  times ;  he  must  study  it 
carefully  so  that  its  contents  is  so  well  known  to 
him  that  it  becomes  a  part  of  his  nature. 

The  Bible  teems  with  stories  of  heroism,  valor,  self- 
denial,  self-sacrifice,  etc.  There  are  recorded  in  it 
history,  biography,  nature  lessons,  etc.  In  fact  it  is 
a  storehouse  of  truth,  a  veritable  library.  A  teacher 
who  knows  his  Bible  is  never  at  a  loss  for  an  illustra- 
tion, and  what  a  deep  impression  is  made  upon  the 
mind  of  the  pupil  when  Scriptural  truth  is  illustrated 
by  Scriptural  truth !  By  drawing  illustrations  from 
this  source  the  pupil's  interest  in  the  Bible  is  aroused, 
and  he  will  be  anxious  to  know  more  of  its  unfathom- 
able treasures. 

A  teacher  who  will  utilize  these  sources  from  which 
to  glean  his  illustrations  will  present  variety  in  his 
teaching,  and  his  pupils  will  manifest  an  interest 
which  is  responsive  and  spontaneous. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

BIBLE  STUDY 

Ignorance  —  Agencies  to  Promote  —  Methods : 
Historical;  Literature ;   Word  studies  —  Devotional. 

The  present  time  is  noted  particularly  for  its 
specialization.  We  have  specialists  in  business,  medi- 
cine, law,  education,  and  many  other  phases  of  life. 
For  example,  he  who  would  specialize  in  education  is 
not  satisfied  with  a  general  college  course,  but  sup- 
plements the  work  by  intensive  research  work  in  the 
graduate  school  of  the  university.  In  order  to  keep 
up  to  date  in  his  subject  he  realizes  the  need  of  con- 
tinual study  and  investigation. 

The  same  thing  is  true  of  the  Bible  School  teacher. 
He  needs  to  realize  the  full  responsibility  of  his  office 
and  that  he  is  called  to  be  a  specialist  in  the  rich  and 
opportune  field  of  religious  education.  The  teacher 
is  called  to  teach  the  Bible.  This  is  his  great  text- 
book, from  which  the  nuggets  of  golden  truth  are  to 
be  mined  for  his  pupils.  In  this  work  he  should 
specialize,  not  in  an  unscientific  way,  just  to  meet  the 
needs  of  the  weekly  Bible  lesson,  but  carefully  and 
systematically.  He  should  ponder  deeply  over  its 
pages. 

IGNORANCE 

A  careful  examination  of  the  Bible  Schools  reveals 

the   lamentable   fact   that   much   ignorance   prevails 

224 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  225 

on  the  part  of  the  pupils  with  respect  to  the 
Bible.  The  cause  of  it  is  twofold:  (1)  The  aver- 
age pupil  gets  very  little  or  no  Bible  instruction  at 
home.  (2)  Consequently  the  responsibility  of  giv- 
ing the  pupils  what  they  do  get,  rests  in  a  large  meas- 
ure with  the  Bible  School  teacher  and  therefore,  in 
the  limited  time  that  is  given  for  Bible  teaching,  great 
responsibility  rests  upon  him  to  see  that  his  instruc- 
tion is  full  and  complete. 

When  we  mention  the  prevalence  of  ignorance  of 
the  Bible,  the  following  facts  will  illustrate  our  point. 
Some  years  ago  President  Thwing  of  Western  Re- 
serve University  at  the  first  Bible  exercise  of  the 
freshman  class  gave  a  test  to  34  young  men,  all  but  1 
of  whom  were  connected  with  some  one  of  9  religious 
congregations  in  the  Central  States.  He  wrote  out 
on  the  black-board  22  quotations  from  the  writings 
of  the  poet  Alfred  Tennyson,  with  whose  writings  all 
educated  persons  are  more  or  less  familiar.  These 
22  extracts  all  contained  references  or  allusions  to 
the  Holy  Scriptures.  In  a  word,  to  each  of  these  34 
men  22  questions  were  put,  which  would  demand  748 
answers.  The  record  shows  that  out  of  the  748 
answers,  only  328  were  correct, —  not  quite  44  per 
cent. 

These  quotations  were  given  to  a  senior  class  of  38 
negro  and  Indian  students  at  Hampton,  Virginia, 
none  of  whom  could  enter  college  without  three  years' 
further  study.  Of  the  836  possible  answers,  645 
were  given  correctly,  or  77  per  cent.  One  student 
answered  all  the  questions ;  3,  all  but  1. 

Dr.  George  A.  Coe,  in  order  to  test  the  Bible 
knowledge  of  his  students  in  Northwestern  Univers- 


226  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

itj,  seized  the  opportunity  to  put  a  few  simple  queries 
about  the  Bible  to  nearly  one  hundred  college  stu- 
dents. Most  of  these  persons,  no  doubt,  were 
brought  up  in  Christian  homes  and  had  enjoyed  such 
instruction  as  the  average  Bible  School  or  pulpit  of 
our  day  afford.     The  questions  were : 

(1)  What  is  the  Pentateuch? 

(2)  What  is  the  Higher  Criticism  of  the  Scrip- 
tures ? 

(3)  Does  the  Book  of  Jude  belong  to  the  Old 
Testament  or  the  New  ? 

(4)  Name  one  of  the  patriarchs  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. 

(5)  Name  one  of  the  judges  of  the  Old  Testament. 

(6)  Name  three  of  the  kings  of  Israel. 

(7)  Name  three  prophets. 

(8)  Give  one  of  the  beautitudes. 

(9)  Quote  a  verse  from  the  Letter  to  the  Romans. 

Ninety-six  papers  were  returned,  in  which  8  an- 
swered correctly  all,  13  answered  correctly  8,  11  an- 
swered correctly  7,  5  answered  correctly  6,  9 
answered  correctly  5,  12  answered  correctly  4,  11 
answered  correctly  3,  13  answered  correctly  2,  11 
answered  correctly  1,  3  answered  correctly  0. 

Out  of  the  96  the  number  giving  the  correct  an- 
swer to  the  first  question  was  60;  to  the  second,  16; 
to  the  third,  56 ;  to  the  fourth,  61 ;  to  the  fifth,  45 ; 
to  the  sixth,  47 ;  to  the  seventh,  52 ;  to  the  eighth,  76 ; 
to  the  ninth,  31. 

As  the  number  of  papers  was  approximately  100, 
these  figures  may  substantially  be  taken  as  percent- 
ages.    The  total  number  of  correct  answers  was  444, 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  227 

out  of  864,  or  nearly  52  per  cent,  a  little  more  than 
half.i 

Very  recently  we  conducted  similar  tests  with  col- 
lege sophomores,  graduate  students  of  the  university, 
Bible  school  teachers  and  pupils.  The  ignorance  of 
the  Bible,  even  in  facts  which  should  be  a  matter  of 
common  knowledge,  was  alarmingly  manifested.  For 
example,  Joshua  was  mentioned  as  a  disciple  of 
Jesus ;  Deuteronomy  was  called  a  gospel ;  the  minor 
prophetical  books  belonged  to  the  New  Testament; 
Jesus  brought  the  children  of  Israel  into  the  Promised 
Land,  etc. 

AGENCIES  TO  PROMOTE 

Within  recent  years  various  agencies  have  been 
instituted  to  promote  Bible  study.  Courses  are 
found  in  college  curricula.  Bible  teacher  training 
schools,  organized  like  the  one  established  in  New 
York  City  by  Dr.  Wilbert  W.  White,  the  one  of 
Temple  University  and  others,  the  Young  Men's  and 
Young  Women's  Christian  Associations,  summer  as- 
semblies, Chautauquas,  etc.,  are  some  of  the  numer- 
ous agencies  organized  to  promote  systematic  Bible 
study.  But  the  greatest  work  yet  remains  to  be  done. 
The  church,  Bible  School  and  religious  press  should 
carry  on  a  broader  and  more  comprehensive  educa- 
tional campaign  in  order  to  induce  people  to  make 
Bible  study  a  part  of  the  regular  home  routine.  The 
majority  of  our  homes  to-day  think  this  entire  respon- 
sibility rests  upon  the  Bible  School.  It  needs  to  be 
shown  that  this  is  an  erroneous  and  mistaken  idea. 

1  Peloubet:  Froxt  Line  Sunday  School  Movement,  pages 
160-164. 


228  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

If  the  home  is  going  to  depend  entirely  upon  the  Bible 
School  for  this  training,  then  public  opinion  should 
be  aroused  to  such  an  extent  that  sometime  during 
the  week  additional  time  will  be  given  to  this  much 
needed  study. 

METHODS 

The  methods  of  Bible  study  which  we  would  sug- 
gest for  the  teacher  to  pursue  would  be  the  following : 

HISTORICAL 

First  is  the  historical  method.  The  entire  Bible 
may  be  studied  from  the  viewpoint  of  history.  Every 
book  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament  is  closely  asso- 
ciated, and  forms  a  part  of  the  historical  development 
of  the  world.  Many  parts  of  the  Bible,  like  the 
Decalogue,  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  etc.,  have 
brought  about  epoch-making  events  in  the  world's 
history.  In  order  to  understand  each  book,  its  pur- 
pose and  mission,  the  corresponding  events  of  the 
time  must  be  known  and  understood.  With  a  clear 
knowledge  of  the  historical  background  the  book 
will  not  only  be  more  interesting,  but  its  interpreta- 
tion will  be  easier.  The  wonder  of  the  Bible  is  shown 
in  its  authentic  statements  and  the  sincerity  of  the 
writers.  The  work  of  the  archaeologist  and  histori- 
cal student  in  their  discoveries  and  studies  helps  to 
substantiate  the  Bible  record. 

"  Oriental  archaeology,"  says  Dr.  Sayce,  "  tells  us 
how  the  men  thought  and  acted  who  were  contempo- 
rary with  the  heroes  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures.  It 
brings  before  us  as  in  a  photograph  the  politics  of 
the  day,  and  the  theatre  wherein  these  politics  were 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  2^9 

represented.  In  reading  Sennacherib's  account  of 
his  campaign  against  Hczekiah  we  are  brought  face 
to  face  with  history  just  as  much  as  we  should  be 
by  the  columns  of  a  modern  newspaper,  and  we  can 
picture  tlie  events  with  as  much  definiteness  of  out- 
line in  the  one  case  as  we  can  in  the  other.  No  con- 
ventional ideas  of  what  the  narrative  ought  to  mean 
come  between  us  and  the  picture  it  presents.  We 
judge  it  rightly  or  wrongly  according  to  our  capac- 
ity for  forming  a  judgment  upon  purely  historical 
ground.  Our  concern  is  with  history,  and  we  realize 
that  such  is  the  case. 

"  It  is  in  this  way  that  oriental  archaeology  has 
come  to  teach  us  how  to  read  and  understand  the 
narratives  of  the  Old  Testament.  We  begin  to  learn 
what  the  history  of  the  Orient  was  in  the  days  of 
Moses,  of  Solomon,  or  of  Hezekiah,  and  with  this 
key  in  our  hands  can  unlock  the  historical  treasures 
of  the  Bible."  ^ 

LITERATURE 

Dr.  IMoulton  of  Chicago  University  has  issued  an 
epoch  making  work  which  he  has  called,  "  The  Liter- 
ary Study  of  the  Bible."  By  the  literary  study  of 
the  Bible  we  mean,  quoting  his  words,  "  If,  then,  the 
Bible  is  justh^  called  literature,  we  ought  to  be  pre- 
pared to  find  that  the  Bible  is  made  up  of  epics  and 
lyrics  and  dramas  and  essays  and  philosophic  trea- 
tises and  epistles  and  a  great  many  other  of  these 
literary  forms.  Now  the  literary  study  of  the  Bible 
is  the  study  of  these  great  literary  forms  in  connec- 

1  Sayce:  The  Higher  Criticism  and  the  Monuments,  page 
560. 


£30  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

tion  with  the  Scriptures  —  epic,  lyric,  dramatic, 
philosophic,  and  the  like :  —  the  study  of  these  forms, 
and  of  their  numerous  subdivisions,  and  of  the  liter- 
ary mechanism  by  which  these  literati  realize  them- 
selves. And  the  foundation  principle  of  this  particu- 
lar literary  study  of  the  Bible  is  this :  that  a  clear 
grasp  of  the  outward  literary  form  is  essential  to  the 
understanding  of  the  matter  and  principle." 

In  making  a  literary  study  of  the  Bible  it  is  neces- 
sary to  study  each  book  as  a  whole.  It  is  necessary 
to  get  the  historical  perspective,  the  occasion  for 
writing,  the  author's  motive,  and  the  underlying  prin- 
ciples involved  in  it.  We  must  view  the  book  as  a 
unit  and  not  study  it  verse  by  verse,  because  the  di- 
vision into  verses  is  mechanical  and  was  done  by  some 
one  else  and  not  by  the  writer  himself.  In  order  to 
get  the  real  meaning  of  the  author,  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  go  through  it  again  and  again,  and  even- 
tually the  ideas  will  be  clearer.  After  one  has  a  grip 
upon  the  style  of  the  author  and  has  become  accus- 
tomed to  his  language  and  expression,  it  will  be  easier 
to  understand  his  meaning.  Take,  for  example,  the 
Book  of  Ezekiel.  The  book  seems  to  be  dry  reading, 
and  in  many  parts  uninteresting  and  the  language 
difficult  to  understand ;  but  after  one  has  read  it  three 
or  four  times  the  book  is  found  to  be  one  of  the  most 
interesting  and  inspiring  of  all  the  prophetical  works. 
His  fiery  language,  symbolical  pictures,  and  strong 
appeals  for  righteousness  show  the  intensity  and 
earnestness  of  the  prophet  in  the  cause  of  God.  As 
Bible  students  and  teachers  we  should  be  closely  and 
intimately  acquainted  with  the  literary  merit  of  its 
books.     Every  Bible  teacher  should  show  his  pupils 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  231 

the  beautiful  literature  which  composes  God's  word. 
This  offers  another  way  whereby  each  pupil  may  be 
more  vitally  interested  in  the  study  of  the  Bible. 

In  the  literary  study  of  the  Bible,  God's  great  reve- 
lations from  which  men  have  developed  doctrines  are 
unfolded  in  poetry,  drama,  philosophy,  parable,  alle- 
gory, metaphor,  symbol,  history,  and  biography. 
When  viewed  in  the  light  of  literature  and  historical 
study,  many  of  the  differences  of  opinion  which  have 
arisen  at  times  will  be  classified  and  their  meaning 
understood. 

In  concluding  this  topic  let  us  remember  the  perti- 
nent words  of  Dr.  Moulton :  "  We  are  accustomed 
—  I  don't  speak  of  Sunday  Schools  now  —  we  are 
accustomed,  in  the  scheme  of  our  high  schools  and 
colleges  and  universities,  to  send  our  young  people 
for  their  literar}^  culture  to  literatures  which  spir- 
itually are  at  the  opposite  poles  from  ourselves  — 
to  the  great  literatures  of  Greece  and  Rome,  which 
spiritually  are  negative  to  us,  where  the  highest  pas- 
sion is  sensuous  passion,  the  highest  conception  of 
Providence  is  mocking  fate,  where  philosophies  are 
philosophies  in  which  God  is  a  traditional  accident; 
and  all  the  while  we  have  in  our  own  hands,  being  fa- 
miliar with  it  from  our  very  childhood,  one  of  the 
oldest,  grandest  literatures,  in  which  lyrics  are  not 
inferior  to  the  lyrics  of  Greece,  oratory  is  equal  to 
anything  that  the  world  has  ever  produced,  philoso- 
phy has  an  application  to  our  actual  life ;  which  gives 
us  dramas  such  as  no  theatre  could  ever  attempt  — 
dramas  in  which  all  space  is  the  stage,  all  time  is  the 
period,  and  God  Himself  is  one  of  the  chief  actors. 
Is  it  not  reasonable  that  we  should  accustom  those 


2S2  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

who  are  seeking  higher  education  to  associate  liter- 
ary beauty  with  that  which  is  in  harmony  with  our 
spiritual  feeling,  and  not  simply  with  that  which  is 
opposed  to  it?  And  you  whose  immediate  concern  is 
to  deal  with  the  teaching  of  Sunday  Schools,  see,  in 
carrying  out  your  tasks,  that  you  lay  a  foundation 
for  bringing  together,  in  later  life,  the  study  of  the 
classics  and  the  literary  study  of  the  Bible."  ^ 

WORD    STUDIES 

Word  studies  form  another  invaluable  method  of 
Bible  Study.  By  word  study,  of  course,  we  mean  the 
careful  investigation  and  study  of  the  meaning  of 
various  important  words  which  occur  in  the  text,  as 
to  the  number  of  times  they  are  found  and  the  vari- 
ous meanings  as  derived  from  the  context.  This 
method,  of  course,  is  applicable  to  Old  and  New  Tes- 
taments alike. 

Word  studies  may  be  carried  on  in  the  best  way  by 
a  knowledge  of  Hebrew  and  Greek.  In  these  lan- 
guages the  shades  of  meaning  are  brought  down  to 
finer  points  of  distinction  than  is  possible  in  the  Eng- 
lish translations.  We  realize  that  it  is  too  much  to 
expect  a  Bible  School  teacher  to  be  trained  in  these 
languages,  for  it  takes  years  of  specialization  to  be 
proficient  in  them.  If  it  is  possible,  however,  we 
would  advise  Bible  School  teachers  to  have  some 
knowledge  of  these  tongues.  It  is  remarkable  how 
interesting  and  inspiring  their  study  will  be  found, 
and  a  little  study  day  by  day  in  spare  moments, 
will  gradually  give  a  good  workable  knowledge  of 
them.     One  appreciates   and  values  the  Bible  more 

iMoulton:     Literary  Study  of  the  Bible,  page  288. 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  233 

with  a  knowledge  of  the  languages  in  which  it  was 
originally  written,  and  it  is  interesting,  helpful,  edu- 
cative, and  stimulating  for  a  Bible  School  teacher  to 
tell  his  pupils  that  certain  important  words  in  the 
lesson  in  the  original  language  are  so  and  so,  and 
are  found  so  many  times  with  these  different  usages 
and  meanings.  It  also  shows  the  pupil  that  the 
study  of  the  Bible  involves  careful  and  scientific  meth- 
ods. However,  even  in  the  English  language  much 
valuable  investigation  can  be  carried  on  in  word 
studies.  With  the  help  of  a  carefully  analyzed  con- 
cordance to  serve  as  a  guide,  one's  studies  will  prove 
helpful  and  profitable.  It  must  be  remembered  that 
these  studies  involve  care,  patience,  and  mental  effort, 
but  the  results  will  more  than  repay  the  efforts. 

DEVOTIONAL 

The  Bible  School  teacher  needs  to  bring  to  his 
study  of  the  Bible  from  the  historical,  literary,  and 
word  studies  viewpoints,  a  devotional  and  reverent 
attitude.  These  studies  will  not  only  increase  his 
knowledge  of  the  Bible,  but  guide  him  intelligently 
in  his  devotional  studies.  This  attitude  the  teacher 
always  needs  to  manifest  in  his  private  study,  in 
his  public  teaching,  and  in  the  guidance  of  his  pupils. 


CHAPTER  XV 

THE  BIBLE  SCHOOL  ORGANIZED 

Churchy  School,  and  Pastor  —  The  Superinten- 
dent —  Vice-superintendent  —  Department  Superin- 
tendents —  Secretary  —  Treasurer  —  Librarian  — 
Teachers'  Meetings  —  Departments  —  The  Elemen- 
tary Division:  Cradle  Roll;  Beginners'  Class;  Pri- 
mary Department  —  Junior  Class  —  Intermediate 
Department  —  Senior  Department  —  Adult  Depart- 
ment —  Home  Department  —  Missionary  Depart- 
ment —  Temperance  Department  —  The  Teacher 
Tr aiming  Class, 

CHURCH,  SCHOOL,  AND  PASTOR 

We  live  to-day  in  an  era  of  organization.  Our  life 
is  complex.  It  is  a  day  of  great  achievement  and 
triumph.  Society  needs  the  organizations  which  we 
have,  and  if  we  keep  on  developing  in  all  phases  of 
life  as  rapidly  in  the  future  as  we  have  in  the  past, 
things  will  become  even  more  complex,  and  in  conse- 
quence we  shall  need  more  perfect  organization  in 
order  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  times. 

On  account  of  this  complexity  of  life,  the  church, 
through  her  organized  work,  holds  the  key  to  the 
uplifting  of  society  to  higher  realms  of  usefulness 
and  consecrated  living.  The  church,  through  the 
Sunday  School  wields  tremendous  influence  and  power 

234 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  235 

for  righteousness  and  spiritual  uplift.  The  church 
has  caught  the  spirit  of  the  times  and  is  organizing 
its  forces  in  a  systematic,  businesslike  way  in  order 
to  become  more  useful  and  helpful  in  carrying  on  the 
work  of  the  Christ. 

The  Bible  School  is  the  church's  golden  opportun- 
ity for  service,  for  it  determines  in  large  measure 
what  the  church  of  the  future  shall  be.  The  church 
itself  of  necessity  must  bear  a  vital  living  relation 
to  this  strong-arm  organization. 

We  must  not  get  the  erroneous  belief  that  the  Bi- 
ble School  is  the  church.  The  church  is  a  heaven- 
born  institution,  the  Bible  School  is  a  product  of  the 
human  mind.  The  ideals,  principles,  and  purposes 
of  the  church  are  found  in  the  Bible  School.  But 
the  writer  believes  that  the  Bible  School  was  organ- 
ized by  the  direction  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  the 
church  needs  the  Bible  School  as  it  needs  the  church. 
Through  organized  work  large  things  can  be  accom- 
plished, and  the  church  should  see  that  through  the 
Bible  School  great  things  are  accomplished  for  Christ. 

That  results  may  be  properly  achieved  very  much 
depends  upon  the  individuality  and  personality  of 
leadership.  This  is  true  in  secular  affairs,  and  it 
is  a  fact  in  religious  life.  The  pastor  is  naturalh', 
because  of  his  position  in  the  church,  looked  upon  as 
the  leader.  The  chief  duty  of  every  minister  is  to 
preach  Jesus  Christ  and  Him  crucified,  but  there  are 
many  duties  devolving  upon  him  because  of  his  lead- 
ership. His  work  as  pastor  and  leader  is  varied, 
and  there  are  times  when  it  seems  as  though  there 
is  so  much  to  be  done  that  the  question  arises,  How 
can  he  do  it?     It  is  impossible  for  the  pastor  to  give 


2S6  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

all  his  time  and  energy  to  every  organization  and 
society  connected  with  the  church. 

However,  it  seems  to  me  that  every  pastor  should 
give  all  the  time,  energy,  and  devotion  to  his  Bible 
School  that  his  pulpit  and  pastoral  duties  will  allow. 
He  should  be  the  real  leader  of  the  school.  To  be 
the  leader  of  the  school  it  is  not  necessary  for  him 
to  be  the  superintendent.  A  pastor  should  make  it 
a  point  to  be  present  at  the  opening  of  the  school 
and  take  part  in  the  service.  It  is  a  good  thing  to  be 
present  before  the  service  begins  in  order  to  greet 
strangers  and  members.  It  is  the  testimony  of  hun- 
dreds of  Sunday  School  workers  that  when  the  pastor 
greets  the  stranger  and  member  they  feel  at  home 
and  welcome.  When  the  members  of  the  school  know 
that  their  pastor  is  to  be  present  before  the  school 
begins,  they  will  strive  to  be  on  time  to  be  greeted  by 
his  smile,  word  of  welcome,  and  his  hand-shake.  The 
shake  of  the  hand  may  seem  to  be  of  little  importance, 
yet  by  it  coldness  and  formality  are  taken  away. 

The  pastor's  presence  is  an  inspiration  to  the 
school.  The  members  realize  that  he  is  not  only  in- 
terested in  the  school,  but  his  presence  shows  that  he 
has  the  welfare  and  progress  of  the  school  at  heart. 
His  presence  strengthens  his  leadership  and  his  in- 
fluence over  the  scholars. 

The  pastor  should  seek  to  know  the  name  of  every 
pupil,  both  old  and  young.  The  Bible  School,  he 
should  realize,  offers  a  recruiting  place  for  future 
members  of  his  church.  A  church  which  has  a  flour- 
ishing and  thriving  Bible  School  has  a  wonderful 
future  before  it.  From  the  ranks  of  the  young  people 
the   pastor   is    able   to    get   members    for   his    cate- 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  ^7 

chetical  class.  When  he  knows  their  names  and 
something  about  their  ambitions  and  })lans,  lie  is  able 
to  exercise  more  influence  over  them  and  to  win  them 
more  easily  to  Christ.  Every  teacher  who  has  a 
class  of  young  people  should  endeavor  to  get  them 
to  go  to  catechetical  instruction.  Church  member- 
ship in  the  highest  sense  and  purpose  should  ever 
be  held  up  before  the  Bible  School  pupil ;  "  For  Christ 
and  the  church  "  sliould  be  the  ideal  of  young  and 
old. 

THE  SUPERINTENDENT 

The  world  has  only  known  one  ideal  man  in  its 
history,  and  he  was  Jesus  Christ  the  Lord.  The  true 
individuals  in  the  world  make  him  their  perfect  ex- 
ample in  every  way  and  strive  to  have  his  image  im- 
printed on  their  hearts  and  minds.  No  church 
worker  or  Bible  School  leader  should  have  any  other 
ideal  before  him. 

The  Bible  School  superintendent  holds  a  very  im- 
portant position  in  that  organization.  It  is  a  diffi- 
cult thing  to  conceive  of  an  ideal  superintendent, 
just  as  it  is  to  think  of  anything  else  being  perfect 
in  this  earth-life.  However,  the  superintendent 
should  say  with  Paul,  "  I  press  on  toward  the  goal 
unto  the  prize  of  the  high  calling  of  God  in  Christ 
Jesus." 

When  we  speak  of  an  ideal  superintendent  we  think 
of  certain  requisites  which  make  up  that  ideal.  More- 
over, every  superintendent  should  try  to  live  up  to 
an  ideal  in  order  to  be  more  efficient  in  the  discharge 
of  his  duties. 

(1)   The   ideal    superintendent   should   be    a   true 


THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

leader.  The  office  he  holds  is  a  responsible  one.  The 
scholars  look  up  to  him  and  respect  him  because  he 
is  superintendent.  As  a  leader  he  should  be  prompt 
in  the  opening  of  the  school.  He  should  conduct 
the  service  in  a  quiet,  unassuming,  and  yet  dignified 
manner,  realizing  that  he  is  dealing  with  sacred 
things,  and  that  any  hap-hazard  way  will  not  do. 
Every  portion  of  the  service  should  have  its  proper 
time  and  place. 

As  leader  he  should  have  excellent  order  in  the 
school.  There  should  be  no  commotion.  He  should 
not  allow  pupils  to  leave  their  classes  or  the  room 
at  will;  they  must  know  that  God  is  to  be  rever- 
enced in  the  Bible  School  as  in  the  church.  He 
should  be  a  man  who  can  do  things.  It  is  not  nec- 
essary for  him  to  be  an  excellent  talker  or  speaker. 
The  hour  of  teaching  is  the  time  when  the  lesson 
truths  are  to  be  impressed.  If  the  superintendent 
desires  to  impress  certain  truths,  he  should  do  it  con- 
cisely and  in  two  or  three  minutes. 

As  leader  of  the  school  he  should  not  be  required 
to  teach,  but  he  should  oversee  and  listen  during  the 
hour  of  study  in  order  that  he  may  know  what  is 
going  on.  If  he  discovers  that  a  teacher  is  not  un- 
folding the  truth  properly,  at  the  next  teachers' 
meeting  he  should  unfold  and  explain  how  those  truths 
may  be  presented. 

(2)  Congeniality  is  a  necessary  requisite  for  a 
successful  superintendent.  He  should  be  on  hand 
at  an  early  hour  to  greet  the  pupils  and  visitors.  If 
the  school  is  large  he  should  have  a  number  of  assis- 
tants who  will  help  him.  As  he  goes  in  and  out  be- 
fore his  pupils  he  should  show  a  "  sunny  "  disposi- 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  239 

tion,  an  appreciative  spirit,  and  a  sympathetic  heart. 
He  should  realize  that  as  leader  of  the  Bible  School 
the  pupils  are  virtually  parishioners  of  his.  He 
should  know  all  about  the  family  life  and  environment 
of  each  pupil,  and  by  love  and  sympathy  should  en- 
courage and  help  them.  As  superintendent  he  should 
call  upon  his  pupils  and  welcome  them  to  his  home. 
Congeniality  and  love  work  wonders  in  winning  souls 
to  Christ. 

(3)  Every  superintendent  should  realize  the  ne- 
cessity of  having  S3^stem  in  all  his  Bible  School  work. 
The  world  has  advanced  to-day  to  great  efficiency  in 
all  lines  of  progress  as  the  result  of  system  and  or- 
ganization. The  Lord  Jesus  Christ  had  system  and 
organization,  and  hence  the  secret  of  His  great  suc- 
cess. The  superintendent  who  is  full  of  life  will 
have  system  in  all  his  activities.  He  will  read  and 
study  carefully  the  latest  literature  on  methods  of 
improvement.  A  superintendent  who  is  dead  to  ac- 
tivity, who  is  satisfied  to  go  along  in  the  old  rut,  and 
who  downs  organization,  progress,  and  system  is  a 
stumbling-block  to  Bible  School  work.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  one  who  is  energetic,  earnest,  and  progres- 
sive will  have  teachers'  and  executive  meetings  that 
greater  things  may  be  accomplished.  The  systematic 
superintendent  will  take  pride  in  his  school,  which 
can  do  things  properly  and  well.  He  will  gladly 
observe  the  special  and  benevolent  days  of  the  school 
and  church.  He  will  want  to  see  the  school  give  lib- 
erally and  educationally.  Every  superintendent  can 
make  system  his  great  helper  in  achieving  success  by 
using  methods  adaptable  to  the  needs  of  his  school. 

(4)  The  ideal  superintendent  will  be  his  pastor's 


240  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

right  hand  man.  The  superintendent  should  stand 
very  close  to  his  pastor,  and  consult  with  him  fre- 
quently. He  should  be  anxious  to  have  his  pastor's 
advice  and  help  in  the  administration  of  the  school. 
He  should  uphold  the  arm  of  his  pastor  in  many 
ways.  He  should  keep  a  careful  watch  over  the 
spiritual  welfare  of  his  pupils,  and  if  there  are  any 
who  are  wayward  among  them,  should  ask  his  pastor's 
help.  He  should  report  to  his  pastor  all  who  are 
eligible  for  the  church,  and  constantly  impress  upon 
his  scholars  the  necessity  of  uniting  with  the  church. 
(5)  The  most  important  requisite  for  the  ideal 
superintendent  is  the  spirit  of  consecration  to  his 
work.  A  superintendent  cannot  discharge  his  duties 
faithfully  and  efficiently  who  is  not  consecrated  to  his 
Christ  and  his  church  in  thought,  word,  and  deed. 

VICE-SUPERINTENDENT 

In  each  school  there  should  be  at  least  one  vice- 
superintendent  to  assist  the  superintendent.  If  the 
school  is  very  large  there  should  be  several  associate 
superintendents.  The  particular  duties  of  this  of- 
ficer should  be  to  supply  new  teachers,  or  to  provide 
substitute  teachers  when  regular  teachers  are  absent, 
and  to  assign  new  pupils  to  their  particular  classes. 

DEPARTMENTAL  SUPERINTENDENTS 

There  should  be  departmental  superintendents  for 
each  of  the  following  departments, —  the  cradle  roll, 
beginners,  primary,  junior,  intermediate,  senior, 
adult,  home,  missionary,  and  temperance.  These  of- 
ficers will  have  as  their  duties  what  their  particular 
departments  may  require.     As  its  head,  each  should 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  Ml 

be  held   responsible   for  the   success   and  growth  of 
his  special  department. 

SECRETARY 

There  should  be  a  secretary,  and  he  should  be  given 
as  many  assistants  as  the  duties  of  the  school  re- 
quire. His  duties  consist  in  the  main  in  the  keeping 
of  records  as  follows :  records  of  attendance  of  teach- 
ers and  pupils,  records  of  new  teachers,  new  pupils, 
changes  of  address,  illness,  removal,  dismissal  from 
membership,  etc.  These  records  are  very  vital  for 
the  growth  and  development  of  the  school.  They 
may  seem  trivial,  but  in  point  of  fact  they  form  a 
most  important  part  of  the  life  of  the  organized 
school.  It  is  only  in  proportion  as  the  secretary  is 
efficient,  careful,  and  conscientious  in  his  records, 
that  accuracy  will  result.  Every  school  should  be 
provided  with  a  card  system  which  is  up  to  date  and 
complete,  in  order  that  the  records  may  be  filed  in  a 
systemmatic  and  orderly  way. 

TREASURER 

Every  school  should  have  a  treasurer,  who  should 
keep  an  accurate  record  of  all  receipts  from  collec- 
tions, etc.,  and  expenditures,  and  who  should  make 
report  on  the  status  of  the  treasury  at  regular  in- 
tervals. He  should  report  the  amount  of  the  Bible 
School  collections  each  week,  and  have  the  same 
posted  on  the  record  board  with  the  attendance. 
The  treasurer  should  aim  to  see  that  the  best  financial 
methods  are  used  by  the  school.  For  example,  it 
would  be  a  good  plan,  as  is  done  in  many  schools,  to 
have  an  envelope  to  be  used  by  each  pupil  week  by 


242  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

week,  one  side  for  the  regular  current  expense,  and 
the  other  for  benevolence.  Such  a  plan  would  prove 
helpful  for  any  school. 

LIBRARIAN 

Another  important  office  is  that  filled  by  the  li- 
brarian. He  should  be  empowered  to  choose  the 
number  of  assistants  he  may  require.  In  these  days, 
when  almost  every  little  town  boasts  of  some  kind 
of  a  public  library,  the  Bible  School  library  should 
be  filled  with  books  which  will  be  particularly  helpful 
to  the  teachers  and  pupils  in  the  Bible  School  work. 
There  should  be  found  there  books  dealing  with  such 
subjects  as  religious  education,  Bible  School  lessons, 
organization,  missions,  reports,  religious  encyclo- 
pedias, etc.  These  works  should  be  read  in  order 
that  careful  intensive  study  and  research  may  be  done 
by  teachers  and  pupils. 

TEACHERS'  MEETINGS 

These  meetings  should  be  held  regularly  and  at 
stated  intervals.  Concerning  these  meetings  Mr. 
Lawrance  has  well  said :  ''  Failure  to  fully  compre- 
hend its  design  and  importance  is  the  reason  for  the 
common  apathy  to  be  found  in  many  places  concern- 
ing the  teachers'  meeting.  No  superintendent  who 
fully  realizes  its  real  purpose  and  value  will  willingly 
do  without  it.  First,  let  me  say  that  the  name  is 
in  some  respects  a  handicap.  The  true  teachers' 
meeting  is  no  more  exclusively  for  the  teachers  than  it 
is  for  the  officers.  .  .  .  Its  intent  is  to  aid  all  those 
who  have  anything  to  do  with  the  management  of  the 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  243 

Sunday  School,  whether  officers,  teachers,  or  assis- 
tants of  any  kind. 

"  The  teachers'  meeting,  however,  will  enable  the 
teachers  and  workers  to  assist  one  another,  by  giv- 
ing to  each  one  the  benefit  of  the  study  and  ideas  of 
all.  It  will  tend  to  unify  the  teaching  in  the  school, 
and  this  is  important.  There  should  be  ample  time 
given,  also,  for  the  consideration  of  anything  re- 
garding the  management  of  the  school,  including 
the  duties  of  all  the  officers.  Discussions  concern- 
ing the  grading  of  the  school,  the  library,  the  prepar- 
ations for  Christmas,  Easter,  and  similar  seasons, 
and,  indeed,  anything  else  which  has  to  do  with  the 
welfare  of  the  school,  are  as  appropriate  at  the  teach- 
ers' meeting  as  is  the  treatment  of  the  lesson.  Help 
should  be  rendered  where  help  is  needed,  and  when 
all  the  officers,  as  well  as  the  teachers,  understand 
that  they  will  all  get  something  at  the  teachers'  meet- 
ing which  will  help  them  in  their  particular  work, 
they  will  be  likely  to  attend.  The  teachers'  meeting 
enables  the  school  to  concentrate  its  endeavor  to 
the  strengthening  of  the  weak  places."  ^ 

DEPARTMENTS 

Within  recent  years  the  Bible  School  has  made 
good  progress  towards  departmental  grading.  How- 
ever, the  problem  of  achieving  greater  efficiency  and 
development  is  by  no  means  solved.  Many  schools 
are  handicapped  because  a  proper  building  is  lack- 
ing.    Of  course,  the  ideal  is  to  have  a  separate  room 

1  Lawrance:  How  to  Conduct  a  Sunday  School,  pages  98 
and  99. 


244  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

for  each  class,  and  while  this  is  not  always  possi- 
ble, every  school  should  work  toward  this  end. 

The  next  problems  are  to  secure  more  regular  at- 
tendance upon  the  session,  to  create  a  more  intelli- 
gent appreciation  on  the  part  of  parents  of  their 
responsibility  in  this  matter,  and  to  secure  better 
trained  teachers  in  order  that  instruction  may  be 
carried  on  more  efficiently. 

The  departments  should  be  organized  as  follows: 

THE  ELEMENTARY  DIVISION 

The  elementary  division  includes  the  folloAving  de- 
partments : 

The  cradle  roll  includes  all  children  from  birth 
to  three  years  of  age.  The  object  is  to  enroll  all 
children  as  members  of  the  school  who  are  too  young 
to  attend  the  sessions.  This  department  brings  the 
home  under  the  fostering  care  of  the  church. 


This  department  includes  children  who  are  four 
and  five  years  of  age.  At  this  age  it  is  necessary  to 
have  the  little  ones  in  a  class  apart  by  themselves 
if  any  teaching  worth  while  is  to  be  accomplished. 

PRIMARY    DEPARTMENT 

The  children  of  six,  seven,  and  eight  years  of  age 
are  included  in  this  department.  This  is  the  age 
when  the  brain  and  body  grow  more  rapidly  than 
at  any  other  time  of  life.  It  is  a  time  of  life  when 
they  have  many  new  experiences,  such  as  school  life, 
etc.     The  teaching  needs  to  be  carried  on  with  ex- 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  ^45 

tremc  care  at  this  impressionable  age,  so  that  the 
proper  concepts  are  formed,  and  consequently  it  must 
be  particularly  adapted  to  this  era  of  their  experi- 
ence. They,  too,  should  be  separated  from  the 
other  children. 

JUNIOR  CLASS 

This  class  includes  the  children  who  are  nine,  ten, 
eleven,  and  twelve  years  of  age.  It  is  only  within 
recent  years  that  the  children  of  this  age  have  been 
given  careful  study  and  consideration  by  the  Bible 
Schools.  Heretofore  they  were  held  in  the  primary 
departments,  or  sent  into  the  adult  schools  and 
treated  as  older  pupils.  In  either  place  they  were 
misfits.  When  the  junior  class  was  organized,  they 
came  into  their  own  department,  for  which  they  were 
adapted.  In  this  period  large  numbers  came  to  a 
decision  for  Christ,  and  in  order  to  help  the  teach- 
ing a  separate  class  room  is  very  necessary. 

INTERMEDIATE  DEPARTMENT 

This  department  includes  the  pupils  from  thirteen 
to  sixteen  years  of  age. 

SENIOR  DEPARTMENT 

In  this  department  pupils  from  seventeen  to 
twent}'^  years  of  age  are  enrolled.  One  of  the  great 
problems  confronting  the  Bible  School  is  to  hold  the 
pupils  as  regular  attendants  when  they  reach  the 
intermediate  and  senior  ages.  Then  is  the  time 
when  they  think  they  are  too  old  to  attend.  They 
feel  they  have  learned  all  that  the  school  can  teach 
them. 


me  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

In  order  to  meet  this  problem  it  would  be  well  to 
have  distinctive  Bible  classes  composed  of  the  pupils 
of  these  departments,  from  the  ages  of  thirteen  to 
twenty.  Organizations,  fraternities,  clubs,  and 
classes  appeal  to  these  ages  and  form  a  large  part  of 
their  life.  The  pupils  delight  in  social  fellowship 
and  friendship.  They  are  full  of  life,  energy,  and 
activity,  and  they  are  made  to  utilize  this  energy  if 
properly  directed.  However,  organizations  without 
distinctive  object  will  be  of  no  use  or  help.  There 
need  to  be  distinctive  objects  for  which  they  may 
work.  The  objectives  for  such  classes,  as  suggested 
by  the  International  Sunday  School  Association,  are 
the  following:  (1)  The  winning  of  the  class  mem- 
bers to  personal  allegiance  to  Jesus  Christ  as  Sa- 
vior and  Lord;  and  (2)  The  proper  expression  of 
the  Christian  life  in  service  for  others  in  the  name 
and  spirit  of  the  Christ.  Thus  one  strengthens 
one's  self  and  helps  others. 

These  organizations,  properly  directed  and  con- 
trolled by  strong,  consecrated  teachers,  may  become 
vital  powers  for  the  church  and  school.  There 
should  be  officers  and  committees  to  insure  careful 
work  and  growth.  The  following  program  and  dia- 
gram prepared  by  the  International  Association  will 
be  found  to  be  workable  and  apropos: 

"  The  conscientious  Christian  leader  will  keep  in 
mind  his  or  her  obligation  to  the  individual  members 
of  the  class.  By  reading  and  study  he  or  she  will 
become  acquainted  with  the  characteristics  of  the 
teen-age  life,  with  a  view  to  planning  such  activities 
for  both  the  Sunday  and  the  micJ-week  session  as  will 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 


247 


eventually    result    in    the    development    of    stalwart 
Christian  manhood  and  womanhood." 

ORGANIZATION 


OFFICERS 

*President 

*Vice-President 

*Secretary 

^Treasurer 

fTeacher 


COMMITTEES 

J 
Athletic 

Social 

Membership 

Program 

Etc. 


CLASS  MEETING 


Sunday  Session 

I 

Opening  services 

Class  lesson 

Discussion    of    through- 

the-week  activities 
Closing  services 


Through-the-week  ses- 
sion 

.1 

Determined  by  activity 

I  .     . 

Activity  committee  in 
charge 


RANGE  OF  CLASS  ACTIVITIES 


Physical      Mental      Social        Spiritual       Service 


*  Older  Boy  or  Girl 
t  Adult 


248  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

ADULT  DEPARTMENT 

One  of  the  great  problems  before  the  churches  and 
Bible  Schools  at  present  is,  how  to  interest  the  men 
sufficiently  so  that  they  will  attend  religious  services 
more  regularly  and  come  in  large  numbers.  In  order 
to  get  the  men  of  the  country,  town,  and  city,  various 
movements  have  been  started,  such  as  the  brother- 
hood and  adult  Bible  classes.  These  classes  should 
include  men  from  twenty  years  of  age  and  upward. 
Classes  for  women  should  also  be  organized  on  the 
same  plan  in  order  to  make  their  work  more  effec- 
tive. The  class  should  have  at  least  the  following 
officers :  a  teacher,  a  president,  a  vice-president,  a 
secretary,  and  a  treasurer.  There  should  also  be 
at  least  four  standing  committees  as  follows :  mem- 
bership, social,  devotional,  missionary.  These  move- 
ments hold  out  high  ideals,  lofty  purposes,  and  splen- 
did opportunities  for  the  men  of  each  community,  but 
any  organization  which  has  an  elaborate  propaganda 
simply  written  on  paper  has  already  written  its  last 
will  and  testament.  If  we  want  men  for  these  or- 
ganizations in  order  to  bring  them  into  the  church 
and  Bible  School,  there  must  be  more  effort  and  self- 
sacrifice.     There  must  be : 

(1)  Personal  Work.  In  each  Bible  school  we  al- 
ways find  a  small  band  of  men  who  are  intensely  in- 
terested in  the  work,  and  we  can  alwa3^s  count  on 
them  for  any  active  work  to  be  done.  Personal  work 
on  the  part  of  each  man  will  bring  another  man  to 
the  Bible  School.  On  the  whole  men  are  not  in- 
different to  the  church;  when  asked  to  come,  they  say 
they  think  they  are  not  welcome  is  the  reason  they 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  249 

have  not  before  done  so.  One  man  said,  "  The 
church  is  a  woman's  club."  The  church  could  not 
do  without  the  noble  women.  They  are  active  in 
all  departments  of  church  work,  and  they  serve  the 
church  faithfully,  but  the  men  on  the  whole  are  the 
ones  who  support  the  church,  although  they  may  not 
attend  very  regularly.  Nevertheless,  to  show  that 
man  that  the  church  is  not  a  woman's  club,  and  that 
a  man's  work  is  to  be  done,  it  is  necessary  to  have  him 
attend  the  Bible  School  and  church.  Each  man  won 
for  Christ  should  be  a  personal  worker.  If  we  want 
men  for  the  kingdom  of  God  we  must  win  them 
through  consecrated  personal  work. 

(2)  Sociability.  A  strong  factor  to  be  cultivated 
among  men  is  the  spirit  of  sociability.  Each  man  is 
a  social  entity.  He  wants  friendship  and  comrade- 
ship. As  men  come  to  the  Bible  School  each  one 
should  be  given  a  strong,  hearty  hand-shake,  and 
made  to  feel  that  he  is  welcome.  When  a  man  feels 
that  the  church  is  a  true  church  home  to  him,  he  will 
gladly  attend  and  become  vitally  interested  in  its  wel- 
fare. If  he  becomes  sick  or  indifferent  and  his 
friends  of  the  church  look  after  him,  he  will  realize 
that  he  has  a  church  home  in  deed  and  in  truth. 

(3)  The  uplifted  Christ.  "  If  I  be  lifted  up  from 
the  earth,  I  will  draw  all  men  unto  myself."  To  get 
men  into  the  church  and  Bible  School  simply  to  have 
them  there  means  nothing.  All  personal  and  social 
work  must  have  one  given  end,  namely,  the  bringing 
of  men  to  the  uplifted  Christ.  One  man  said  recently, 
that  he  did  not  want  to  hear  political,  current,  or 
scientific  truths  taught  and  expounded  in  the  Bible 
School  and  church;  what  he  wanted  to  hear  was  the 


250  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

story  of  the  uplifted  Christ  taught  plainly  and  con- 
vincingly. Once  the  story  of  the  Christ  becomes  the 
vital  part  of  a  man's  life,  he  will  be  a  true  personal 
worker  and  seeker  after  men.  We  want  true,  loyal, 
devoted  Christian  men  to  bring  their  fellow-men  to 
the  uplifted  Christ. 

HOME  DEPARTMENT 

The  home  department  includes  all  those  persons 
who  are  unable  to  attend,  or  for  some  reason  cannot 
engage  in  the  active  work  of  the  school.  However, 
the  plan  is  to  get  these  same  people  to  study  the  Bible 
School  lesson  at  home  for  a  period  of  at  least  one-half 
hour  each  week.  From  this  department  large  num- 
bers have  eventually  been  enrolled  as  active  members 
of  the  school.  At  the  present  time  considerable  home 
department  literature  is  published  which  helps  to 
advance  the  work  and  interest  in  the  Bible  School. 

MISSIONARY  DEPARTMENT 

This  department  is  not  common  to  all  schools,  but 
is  found  in  a  large  number  of  them.  The  purpose 
of  the  department  is  to  promote  missionary  educa- 
tion in  the  Bible  School.  There  should  be  a  stand- 
ing missionary  committee  whose  work  it  should  be  to 
see  that  an  adequate  missionary  library  is  established, 
that  maps,  charts,  pictures,  curios  are  provided,  and 
that  missionaries  are  invited  to  speak  to  the  school 
occasionally,  distributing  literature  to  teachers  and 
pupils,  etc.  There  should  be  an  occasional  confer- 
ence of  the  teachers'  association  with  the  committee 
to  arrange  for  adequate  teaching  of  missions  in  the 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  251 

classes.     The  work  of  the  department  is  to  advance 
the  cause  of  missions  along  all  lines. 

TEMPERANCE  DEPARTMENT 

This  department  is  likewise  not  common  to  all 
schools,  but  it  is  found  in  a  large  number.  There 
is  need  for  a  temperance  department  in  every  school. 
There  should  be  a  temperance  committee  with  a  repre- 
sentative from  each  department  of  the  school.  The 
aim  is  to  show  through  educational  work  what  temper- 
ance is.  There  should  be  a  well  selected  temperance 
library,  maps,  charts,  etc.,  which  will  help  to  achieve 
the  desired  results.  There  should  be  a  regular  time 
for  temperance  teaching,  and  the  days  set  aside  for 
this  purpose  should  be  observed  by  special  exercises. 
The  graded  lesson  of  the  junior  and  intermediate 
series  offers  excellent  material  for  temperance  studies. 

THE  TEACHER  TRAINING  CLASS 

A  most  essential  department  of  the  school  is  the 
teacher  training  class.  The  time  is  here  when 
trained  teachers  are  needed  as  never  before.  If  the 
Bible  School  is  to  be  the  splendid,  efficient  religious 
educational  institution  that  it  should  be,  then  trained 
teachers  are  absolutely  necessary.  There  are  good 
courses  and  books  published  in  large  numbers,  so 
that  the  list  is  large  from  which  selection  may  be 
made.  The  class  should  be  composed  of  the  officers 
of  the  school,  present  teachers,  and  prospective 
teachers.  Those  who  are  teachers  should  take  ad- 
vanced work  in  order  to  have  a  more  intensive  knowl- 
edge of  their  great  work.     Prospective  teachers  need 


a5£  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

this  course  of  training  in  order  to  do  their  work  as 
teachers  well  and  efficiently.  The  time  is  not  far  dis- 
tant when  every  teacher  must  be  a  trained  teacher. 
The  day  cannot  come  too  speedily.  The  work  of  the 
kingdom  demands  it. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

ORDER 

Punctuality  —  Ventilation  —  Arrangement  — 
Music  —  Busyness  —  Obedience  —  Interest  —  At- 
tention. 

One  of  the  criticisms  most  commonly  heard  of  the 
Bible  School  is,  that  there  is  so  much  disorder  and 
confusion.  When  this  spirit  prevails  the  entire 
school  suffers.  There  is  lack  of  reverence  and  wor- 
ship in  the  opening  service;  there  is  no  sincerity  in 
the  reading  of  the  Word ;  the  time  for  study  of  the 
lesson  is  lost ;  in  fact,  the  whole  period  has  been  a 
failure.  Naturally  a  question  pertinent  to  the  occa- 
sion is  frequently  asked :  If  order  and  control  is  ob- 
tained in  the  public  schools,  why  should  not  the  same 
control  be  found  in  our  Bible  Schools?  This  seems 
to  be  as  far  as  the  discussion  is  carried.  Of  all 
places,  it  is  in  the  Bible  School  that  we  should  expect 
to  find  order,  control,  and  discipline  manifested  in  a 
high  degree.  These  things  are  necessary  and  con- 
ducive to  worship,  reverence,  and  stud3\ 

In  order  to  secure  and  maintain  good  order,  we  be- 
lieve the  following  suggestions  will  be  helpful. 

PUNCTUALITY 

We  remembered  having  attended  a  large  Bible 
School  where  one  of  the  things  first  noticed  was  the 

253 


^4  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

disorder  and  apparent  lack  of  control.  It  took  only 
a  moment  to  understand  the  situation.  The  cause  of 
the  trouble  was  in  large  measure  due  to  the  methods 
pursued  by  the  superintendent.  Several  of  the  of- 
ficers were  not  at  their  desks,  and  he  was  hurrying  to 
and  fro,  endeavoring  to  do  some  of  their  work  that 
the  school  might  begin  its  session.  He  was  exactly 
one-quarter  of  an  hour  late  in  opening  the  school. 
When  he  tried  to  start,  so  great  was  the  noise  and 
confusion  that  he  was  compelled  to  tap  the  bell  sev- 
eral times  before  any  sort  of  order  was  restored.  He 
consumed  at  least  five  minutes  more  in  this  manner, 
and  then  the  order  was  far  from  being  satisfactory. 

All  of  this  confusion  and  wasting  of  precious  time 
could  have  been  avoided  if  the  superintendent  had  in- 
sisted on  punctuality.  Not  only  were  the  officers 
dilatory,  but  many  of  the  teachers  were  late  in  join- 
ing their  classes,  and  in  the  meantime  the  pupils  did 
pretty  much  as  they  pleased. 

When  the  hour  arrives  for  the  school  to  open,  the 
superintendent  should  set  the  example  and  begin  ex- 
actly on  time.  He  should  also  be  present  some  time 
before  the  school  opens  so  as  to  see  that  everything 
is  in  readiness  for  the  opening  time.  It  is  not  the 
business  of  the  superintendent  to  do  the  duties  of  a 
dozen  officers,  but  it  is  his  duty  to  oversee  them,  and 
to  see  that  all  things  are  carried  on  in  an  orderly  and 
systematic  manner.  He  has  the  right  to  insist  that 
the  corps  of  officers  and  teachers  shall  attend  to  their 
duties  on  time.  In  these  requirements  he  should  be 
heartily  supported  by  the  Bible  School  association  or 
official  board  of  the  church,  as  the  case  may  be. 

Tardiness    of   teachers    contributes   much   to    dis- 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  255 

order.  If  left  alone,  the  pupils  in  the  classes  are  per- 
mitted to  follow  pretty  much  their  own  devices,  and 
the  more  active  ones  are  going  to  take  advantage  of 
the  opportunity  to  play  tricks  and  get  into  mischief. 
The  presence  of  the  teacher  in  the  class  will  mean 
holding  this  superfluous  energy  and  activity  in  check 
and  under  control.  In  fact  the  teacher  should  be 
found  in  his  class  section  before  his  pupils  arrive,  so 
that  he  will  be  there  to  greet  them  when  they  come. 
It  will  mean  that  a  larger  number  of  pupils  will  be 
prompt  in  coming  to  school. 

One  of  the  great  lessons  that  our  public  schools 
have  taught  us  is  the  principle  of  being  on  time.  The 
school  begins  promptly  at  nine  o'clock  in  the  morn- 
ing, not  one  minute  before  or  one  minute  after.  This 
principle  has  become  deeply  ingrained  in  the  life  of 
our  American  people.  The  same  standard  should  be 
observed  by  our  Bible  Schools,  and  punctuality  on  the 
part  of  the  officers  of  the  school,  and  insistence  that 
this  rule  be  observed,  will  go  a  long  way  toward  solv- 
ing this  problem.  The  superintendent  does  not  have 
the  same  authority  to  enforce  obedience  that  the  pub- 
lic school  principal  has,  but  he  has  the  moral  author- 
ity and  the  support  of  his  associates,  and  a  principle 
inherently  right,  which  will  command  obedience. 

If  promptness  is  insisted  upon,  pupils  will  not  be 
so  apt  to  be  late  and  hence  to  break  into  the  worship- 
ful spirit  of  the  opening  service.  No  superintendent 
should  be  required  to  waste  five  minutes  in  securing 
order.  His  attitude,  manner,  yes,  his  personality 
should  show  that  he  expects  to  get  just  exactly  what 
he  has  requested.  By  this  w^e  mean  not  the  mani- 
festation of  a  domineering  or  dictatorial  spirit,  but 


^56  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

the  manifestation  of  the  quiet,  dignified  manner  of 
the  forceful,  influential  personality  which  should  be- 
token the  executive  officer.  One  or  two  taps  of  the 
bell,  as  the  case  may  be,  or  whatever  plan  may  be 
in  vogue  to  call  the  school  to  order,  should  be  suffi- 
cient. 

The  beginning  on  time  and  being  on  time  will  help 
in  large  measure  to  solve  the  problem  of  disorder  in 
any  school. 

VENTILATION 

One  of  the  least  thought  of  problems  in  the  con- 
struction of  a  church  or  Bible  School  department  is 
air.  Very  frequently  in  the  architectural  plans, 
beauty,  acoustic  properties,  etc.,  are  carefully 
wrought  out,  but  the  ventilation  plan  is  given  no 
consideration  at  all.  The  architect  will  probably 
suggest  the  necessity  of  good  ventilation,  but  the 
building  committee,  knowing,  perhaps,  that  they  have 
only  a  limited  amount  of  money  to  spend  and  desiring 
to  see  the  interior  beautifully  decorated,  will  sacri- 
fice the  law  of  ventilation  for  the  beautiful.  This 
foul  air  causes  unrest,  drowsiness,  and  lack  of  inter- 
est. Many  a  time  a  congregation  seems  sleepy  and 
drowsy  when  the  pastor  preaches.  The  sermon  is 
good  and  the  delivery  forcible  and  clear ;  the  air  is  at 
fault.  Not  infrequently  a  Bible  School  teacher  is 
almost  at  his  wit's  end  to  keep  his  pupils  interested, 
awake,  and  in  order  during  the  lesson  period  because 
of  the  foul  air  of  the  room,  which  affects  the  pupils 
in  the  ways  mentioned.  It  pays  in  terms  of  order, 
character,  and  service  for  Bible  School  rooms  to  be 
thoroughly  ventilated  along  scientific  lines. 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  257 

ARRANGEMENT 

One  of  the  difficult  problems  of  the  average,  ordi- 
nary Bible  School  is  arrangement.  Of  course  the 
ideal  Bible  School  has  a  class  room  for  each  class,  but 
the  majority  of  Bible  School  class  rooms  consist  of 
two  or  three  parts, —  perhaps  one  or  two  sections  for 
the  primary  department  and  the  other  section  to  in- 
clude all  other  departments.  It  is  at  once  seen  that 
this  arrangement  is  unpedagogic.  It  spells  disorder. 
Since  this  is  the  problem  which  confronts  the  major 
portion  of  schools,  the  plan  to  follow  is  to  seek  the 
best  solution  for  such  circumstances. 

Where  the  classes  are  grouped  together  in  more 
or  less  crowded  condition  it  means  that  those  classes 
must  be  grouped  carefully  in  order  to  reduce  noise 
and  confusion  to  the  minimum.  For  example,  it  will 
not  do  to  place  two  classes  of  mischievous  boys  in 
close  proximity ;  there  must  be  several  classes  inter- 
vening. The  classes  should  be  arranged  rectangu- 
larly, as  this  will  economize  the  floor  space.  The 
classes  should  not  be  too  large,  perhaps  not  more 
than  eight  pupils  or  ten  to  a  class  at  the  most, 
so  that  the  teacher  can  preserve  better  order  and  ac- 
complish better  results  in  his  teaching. 

A  visitor  at  a  Bible  School  was  once  asked  by  the 
superintendent  what  plan  he  would  suggest  for  ob- 
taining better  order.  After  observing  the  school  in 
its  departments,  he  answered,  "  Begin  at  the  primary 
department."  The  visitor  had  noticed  that  the  little 
children  were  permitted  to  move  about  as  they 
pleased  and  do  about  as  they  wanted  to.  The  ac- 
tive life   and  energy  there  were  not  properly   con- 


258  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

trolled  and  directed.  However,  he  did  not  go  to 
the  source  of  the  problem.  He  should  have  answered, 
"  Begin  at  the  home."  Here  is  the  place  to  begin 
to  teach  order,  system,  and  careful  habits.  The 
home  can  lay  the  foundations  and  teach  these  prin- 
ciples. The  school  should  be  saved  this  to  a  large 
extent.  To  promote  good  order  we  need  the  care- 
ful cooperation  of  the  home,  instead  of  its  indiffer- 
ence. 

MUSIC 

Another  essential  feature  in  a  well  ordered  school 
is  the  music.  There  is  a  vast  difference  between 
jingle  and  music.  The  very  best  kind  of  music 
only  should  be  found  in  the  school.  There  is  so 
much  meaningless  stuff,  printed  under  the  name  of 
good  music,  which  is  only  jingles.  There  is  no  in- 
spiration to  be  found  in  words  or  tune.  Music  which 
causes  the  feet  to  move  and  the  body  to  sway  should 
be  avoided  in  the  Bible  School  service.  This  is  char- 
acteristic of  the  jingle  stuff  and  is  but  another 
means  of  adding  to  the  disorder  of  the  school  life. 
For  example,  we  have  not  infrequently  seen  boys  dur- 
ing the  reading  of  the  lesson  and  recitation  period 
hum  one  of  these  catchy  songs,  and  keep  time  by 
moving  their  arms  and  swaying  their  bodies  and 
stamping  with  their  feet,  much  to  the  amusement  of 
the  other  pupils  and  the  annoyance  of  the  teacher. 
Such  antics  not  only  added  to  the  disorder  of  the 
school,  but  at  the  same  time  prevented  serious  study 
of  the  Word.  We  need  bright  music  in  the  school, 
but   worshipful,    inspirational,    and   dignified   music 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  2.59 

which  will  instill  within  the  soul  the  spirit  of  rever- 
ence. The  Bible  School  is  no  place  for  excerpts  from 
the  opera  or  for  jingles. 

BUSY-NESS 

That  order  may  be  preserved.  Professor  Adams 
urges  that  the  pupils  be  kept  busy.  He  says,  "  We 
are  all  familiar  with  Watt's  remarks  about  the  con- 
nection between  Satan  and  idle  hands,  but  teachers 
ought  not  only  to  know  the  lines,  but  to  realize  all 
that  is  implied  in  them.  .  .  .  The  teacher  who  does  all 
the  preparation,  all  the  thinking,  and  all  the  speak- 
ing, is  in  a  fair  way  to  ruin  the  discipline  of  even  a 
good  and  well-disposed  class."  ^ 

The  teacher  who  is  successful  in  Bible  School  work 
is  the  one  who  will  keep  his  pupils'  minds  busy. 
This  word  spells  destruction  to  the  plans  of  the 
tricky  and  mischievous  pupil.  The  teacher  who  has 
carefully  planned  and  prepared  his  lesson  will  have 
in  mind  his  class  as  a  whole  and  at  the  same  time  the 
individuals  who  comprise  it.  He  will  seek  to  make 
his  preparation  suitable  and  his  teachings  adaptable 
to  each  pupil's  needs.  He  will  plan  his  questions 
along  this  line  in  order  to  bring  out  the  answers 
to  meet  this  need. 

By  properly  seating  the  pupils,  carefully  putting 
the  mischievous  ones  immediately  before  him  where 
he  can  always  have  his  eye  upon  them,  and  by  con- 
tinually asking  questions,  he  will  keep  each  one  busy, 
and  the  opportunities  for  creating  disorder  will  be 
reduced  to  a  minimum.     Each  pupil  will  be  inter- 

}  Adams ;    On  Teaching,  page  ^0, 


^60  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

ested,  and  by  careful  guidance  each  moment  will  be 
occupied,  and  valuable  time  will  not  be  lost  or  the 
teaching  seem  to  have  been  in  vain. 

OBEDIENCE 

Obedience  is  also  necessary.  This  is  essential  for 
the  general  welfare  of  the  Bible  School.  The 
teacher  should  insist  upon  being  obeyed  in  his  re- 
quests and  in  the  fulfillment  of  the  requirements  of 
the  school.  In  making  such  requests  the  teacher  as 
well  as  all  the  officers  must  set  the  example.  There 
are  always  some  pupils  who  have  no  regard  at  all 
for  rules  and  orderly  procedure.  They  seem  to  take 
delight  in  breaking  every  command.  With  such  it 
is  necessary  to  deal  firmly.  There  will  be  times  when 
they  try  patience  and  temper,  but  it  will  not  do  to 
show  anger  in  dealing  with  them ;  tact,  good-humor, 
and  firmness  are  requisite  to  handling  the  situation. 
They  will  not  respond  to  anger  and  the  display  of 
hot-tempered  action.  The  controlling  influence  of 
the  teacher  will  predominate  when  the  pupil  sees 
that  there  is  no  indecision  in  his  manner  and  atti- 
tude. Child  nature  is  readily  moulded  into  obedient 
action  when  approached  from  the  proper  angle. 

There  are  times  when  good  cheer  will  bring  order 
out  of  chaos  when  every  other  plan  would  fail.  It 
is  well  for  the  teacher  to  be  able  to  see  a  little  joke, 
and  frequently  a  little  laugh  will  dispel  the  clouds  of 
disobedience.     Rev.    Drawbridge   says : 

*'  The  management  of  a  restive  class  and  the  con- 
trol of  a  fresh  horse  have  many  points  of  resemblance. 
In  each  a  gentlewoman's  hand  can  often  achieve  what 
no  display  of  force  and  violence  would  ever  accom-. 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  261 

plish.  The  latter  may  drive  in  the  symptoms  of  un- 
rest and  disorder,  the  former  alone  can  win  over  the 
spirit  and  the  will,  and  secure  the  desired  disposition. 
Children  prefer  order,  if  they  are  managed  with  pa- 
tience, knowledge,  and  tact,  but  if  the  restive  horse 
or  child  once  gets  out  of  hand,  it  is  very  difficult  to 
undo  the  mischief  which  has  resulted  from  one's 
weakness."  ^ 

INTEREST 

So  important  is  the  maintenance  of  good  order 
that  interest  is  dependent  upon  it.  The  converse  is 
also  true.  Some  teachers  are  able  by  their  presence 
and  manner  to  secure  order  and  interest ;  with  others 
it  requires  effort  and  labor;  but  each  teacher  will 
have  some  degree  of  success  by  maintaining  good 
order  and  understanding  each  pupil's  peculiarities 
and  how  to  interest  him  in  the  instruction  given. 

The  child  has  nature  interests  which  can  be  ap- 
pealed to,  drawn  out,  and  developed  by  objective, 
experimental,  and  reminiscent  teaching.  Then  show- 
ing him  some  relation  between  his  nature  interests 
and  new  objects,  his  interest  in  those  new  objects 
will  gradually  increase. 

Dr.  James  says :  "  The  kindergarten  methods, 
the  object-teaching  rountine,  the  black-board,  and 
manual  training  work  —  all  recognize  this  feature. 
Schools  in  which  these  methods  preponderate  are 
schools  where  discipline  is  easy,  and  where  the  voice 
of  the  master  claiming  order  and  attention  in  threat- 
ening tones  need  never  be  heard. 

"  Next,  step  by  step,  connect  with  these  first  ob- 
1  Drawbridge:     Traixixg  of  the  Twig,  pages  161   and  162. 


262  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

jects  and  experiences  the  later  objects  and  ideas 
which  you  wish  to  instill.  Associate  the  new  with 
the  old  in  some  natural  and  telling  way,  so  that  the 
interest,  being  shed  along  from  point  to  point, 
finally  suffuses  the  entire  system  of  objects  of 
thought."  ^ 

Of  course  this  is  the  ideal  method,  but  successful 
teaching  will  result  where  earnest  preparation  of 
the  lesson  is  made  the  teacher's  rule.  He  will  seek 
to  adopt  such  plans  in  his  teaching  that  each  pupil 
will  be  interested. 

ATTENTION 

Attention  on  the  part  of  the  pupils  is  alike  depend- 
ent upon  good  order  and  interest.  It  is  essential, 
too,  for  fruitful  teaching.  It  is  as  Dr.  James  says: 
"  If,  then,  you  wish  to  insure  the  interest  of  your 
pupils,  there  is  only  one  way  to  do  it ;  and  that  is  to 
make  certain  that  they  have  something  in  their  minds 
to  attend  with  when  you  begin  to  talk." 

One  will  note  not  infrequently  the  attention  of  chil- 
dren wandering  during  the  lesson  period.  Some  have 
a  dreamy  expression,  minds  of  others  seem  wandering 
far  away,  perhaps  thinking  of  baseball,  etc.,  so  that 
the  problem  of  holding  the  attention  is  indeed  a  diffi- 
cult one. 

"  However,  by  careful  questioning  and  concrete 
teaching  this  can  be  overcome.  The  interest  of  the 
pupil  is  to  be  held  step  by  step  as  the  lesson  is  taught, 
and  his  attention  will  be  focused  upon  it.  Some 
pupils  are  less  able  to  attend  than  others.  It  de- 
pends upon  the  individual's  temperament.     However, 

1  James:     Talks  to  Teachers,  page  96. 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  263 

variety  of  teaching  only  can  accomplish  permanent 
results  where  the  interest  is  apt  to  lag  and  the  mind 
to  wander.  By  presenting  the  subject  from  various 
angles,  attention  to  a  considerable  degree  is  bound 
to  follow." 

Again  quoting  from  Dr.  James :  "  Above  all 
things,  make  sure  it  (your  teaching)  shall  run 
through  certain  minor  changes,  since  no  unvarying 
object  can  possibly  hold  the  mental  field  for  long. 
Let  your  pupil  wander  from  one  aspect  to  another 
of  your  subject  if  you  do  not  wish  him  to  wander 
from  it  altogether  to  something  else,  variety  in  unity 
being  the  secret  of  all  interesting  talk  and  thought."  ^ 


1  James:    Talks  to  Teachers,  page  112. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

GRADED  LESSONS 

Uniform  Lessons :  Criticism  —  The  Graded  Les- 
sons: Adaptable;  Educational;  Permanent;  Bibli'Cal 
—  Promotion. 

UNIFORM  LESSONS 

For  more  than  four  decades  the  International  Les- 
son Committee  has  selected  lessons  for  the  entire 
Bible  School.  Each  lesson  is  based  on  biblical  pas- 
sages which  are  used  by  all  the  departments  of  the 
school.  However,  the  writers,  editors,  and  publish- 
ers of  Bible  School  literature  have  tried  to  adopt 
lesson  material  which  will  do  for  all  departments, 
from  the  elementary  division  to  the  adult  department 
inclusive. 

CRITICISM 

The  International  Uniform  Lessons  have  been  in 
use  for  so  many  years  that  many  people  think  they 
can  never  do  without  them.  The  lessons  have  ad- 
vanced Bible  School  work  and  Bible  study  as  no  other 
plan  has  ever  done.  They  have  developed  a  fraternal 
and  cordial  spirit  and  relationship  among  the  vari- 
ous denominations.  In  other  words,  they  have  been 
in  large  measure  instrumental  in  unifying  Christian 
work.     We  believe  that  the  International  Uniform 

264 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  265 

Lessons  were  the  best  that  could  be  developed  at  the 
time,  but  we  believe  that  they  are  no  longer  meeting 
the  need  of  the  schools  in  an  adequate  or  comprehen- 
sive manner  or  along  educational  lines.  The  criti- 
cism we  have  to  offer  of  the  lesson  is  as  follows. 

The  Uniform  Lessons  are  based  on  too  fragmentary 
selections  of  Scriptures.  The  texts  are  very  fre- 
quently composed  of  a  few  verses  in  one  chapter  and 
several  verses  in  another  chapter.  The  number  of 
verses  selected  is  reduced  to  a  minimum.  In  order 
to  get  the  story  of  the  lesson  it  is  necessary  to  read 
several  chapters.  From  our  present  experience  we 
know  that  one  of  the  weak  points  in  Bible  School 
work  and  efficiency  is  the  lack  of  home  study.  For 
a  child  to  be  confronted  with  fragmentary  texts  on 
Sunday  when  no  study  has  been  done  at  home,  means 
that  interest  in  the  lesson  has  already  been  lost. 
Children  want  the  whole  story  before  them ;  they 
are  not  ready  for  and  will  not  accept  the  part  for 
the  whole.  Such  arrangement  is  a  preventative  of 
consecutive  Bible  study. 

The  lessons  as  they  are  selected  disregard  the 
pedagogical  arrangement  of  the  Bible.  The  Old 
Testament  and  New  Testament  are  arranged  peda- 
gogically.  The  Old  Testament  lessons  are  better 
suited  for  children  up  to  fourteen  years  of  age.  The 
New  Testament  lessons  are  better  adapted  for  adoles- 
cents and  adults. 

The  present  system  selects  lessons  for  a  time  from 
the  Old  Testament  and  then  from  the  New  without 
regard  to  pedagogical  treatment.  It  defeats  the 
very  purpose  of  the  admirable  arrangement  of  Old 
and  New  Testaments. 


a66  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

The  most  serious  objection  to  the  lessons  is  that 
they  are  selected  from  the  adult  viewpoint.  They 
fail  on  the  whole  to  take  into  consideration  the  view- 
point of  the  child.  On  this  point  Dr.  Haslett  writes : 
"  Adult  conception,  adult  principles,  adult  doc- 
trines, truths,  methods,  requirements,  and  needs  are 
stamped  upon  it  from  first  to  last.  It  would  seem 
that  the  child  is  taken  to  be  a  small  adult,  an  adult 
in  miniature,  the  fallacy  of  which  notion  Dr.  Nathan 
Oppenheim  clearly  showed  a  few  years  ago  when 
his  book,  '  The  Development  of  the  Child,'  appeared. 
It  is  not  true,  to  say  the  least,  that  any  or  all  truths 
interesting  to  the  adult  mind  may  be  made  interest- 
ing to  the  child  by  merely  simplifying  the  method  of 
instruction  or  of  presentation.  Many  truths  have 
no  interest,  no  meaning,  and  no  fascination  for  the 
child.  They  are  far  beyond  his  power  of  conception 
or  ability  to  grasp.  Nothing  to  which  they  appeal 
is  in  his  mind,  nature,  or  need.  To  judge  the  child 
mind  by  adult  modes  of  thought,  interest,  and  needs, 
and  to  provide  for  his  religious  instruction  accord- 
ingly, is  sinning  against  the  best  light  of  modern 
educational  practice,  against  the  child,  against  na- 
ture —  which  is  our  safest  guide  as  to  the  condition 
and  need  of  the  child,  as  it  is  sinning  against  Holy 
Writ  and  against  the  great  Teacher's  example  and 
admonitions.  No  public  schoolmaster  would  place 
compound  interest,  compound  proportion,  arbitra- 
tion of  exchange,  geometry,  algebra,  Latin,  calculus 
and  the  like,  in  a  curriculum  of  study  for  children 
six,  seven,  eight  or  nine  years  of  age.  They  would 
quickly  be  called  to  account  if  they  should  do  it."  ^ 

1  Haslett:    Pedagogical  Bible  School,  p.  56. 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  267 

THE  GRADED  LESSONS 

In  order  to  meet  these  criticisms  and  demands  from 
pastors,  superintendents,  teachers,  and  others  inter- 
ested in  Bible  School,  the  International  Association 
authorized  the  lesson  committee  to  prepare  the  new 
graded  lesson. 

At  the  convention  of  the  International  Sunday 
School  Association,  which  was  held  at  Louisville, 
Kentucky,  June  18-23,  1908,  the  lesson  committee 
made  a  report  and  recommendation  concerning 
graded  lessons  which  was  adopted  and  from  which 
we  quote  as  follows : 

"  A  new  situation  has  been  gradually  brought 
about:  (a)  by  the  action  of  the  association  in  pro- 
viding for  the  Beginner's  Course  at  its  Denver  Con- 
vention in  1902,  and  for  the  Advanced  Course  at 
its  Toronto  Convention  in  1905;  (b)  by  the  action 
of  the  lesson  committee  in  April,  1907,  forming 
graded  lessons;  and  (c)  by  the  action  of  the  con- 
ference between  some  members  of  the  American  les- 
son committee  and  the  British  lesson  committee  in 
London,  1907,  and  of  the  Boston  Conference  in  Jan- 
uary, 1908. 

"  That  this  convention  (Louisville)  authorize  its 
lesson  committee  also  to  continue  the  preparation 
of  a  thoroughly  graded  course  of  lessons,  which  may 
be  used  by  any  Sunday  School  which  desires  it, 
whether  in  whole  or  in  part."  ^ 

The  lessons  are  prepared  to  meet  the  demands  of 
aU  grades.     They  are  prepared  and  adapted  to  meet 

1  Official  Report  12th   International  Convention,  pages 
612  and  513. 


26S  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

the  needs  and  peculiar  rquirements  of  pupils  of  all 
ages,  from  the  beginners,  to,  and  including,  the  adult 
departments. 

Up  to  the  present  time  the  courses  for  the  first 
twenty  years  of  Bible  School  life  are  as  follows :  the 
beginners'  series,  complete  in  two  years ;  the  primary 
series,  complete  in  three  years  ;  the  junior  series,  com- 
plete in  four  years,  the  intermediate  series,  complete 
in  four  years ;  the  senior  series,  complete  in  four 
years. 

The  graded  lessons  differ  from  the  uniform  lessons 
in  the  following  ways: 

ADAPTABLE 

The  graded  lessons  are  adaptable  for  each  par- 
ticular age  and  period  of  the  pupil's  life.  In  other 
words,  they  may  be  termed  progressive  lessons. 
They  proceed  from  the  simpler  to  more  advanced  and 
complex  truths.  The  lessons  are  closely  graded  and 
prepared  and  arranged  to  meet  the  knowledge  and 
experience  and  growth  of  the  individual. 

EDUCATIONAL 

These  lessons  are  arranged  and  based  on  peda- 
gogical principles.  They  are  not  formed  from  the 
adult  point  of  view.  These  lessons  are  comprehen- 
sive. That  is,  nature,  temperance,  and  mission  les- 
sons are  found  here  which  can  be  appreciated  by 
the  children.  True  instruction,  experience  and  com- 
mon sense  show  us,  must  follow  along  pedagogical 
methods  and  principles. 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  ^69 

PEEMANENT 

These  lessons  are  fixed  or  permanent.  The  uni- 
form lessons  follow  a  six-year  course  with  a  new  les- 
son for  each  Sunday  of  the  new  course  for  the  year. 
Not  so  with  the  graded  system.  In  this  system  it 
will  be  known  what  lesson  for  the  Sunday  will  be 
used  in  the  grade,  and  the  teacher  will  know  what 
results  were  achieved  in  the  course  of  the  year,  and 
wherein  he  can  profit  by  his  mistakes. 

BIBLICAL 

The  graded  lessons  cover  more  Bible  material  than 
the  uniform  lessons.  As  we  have  already  mentioned, 
the  uniform  course  covers  six  years,  the  graded  sys- 
tem covers  seventeen  years,  and  it  is  only  natural 
that  in  such  a  comprehensive  course  more  biblical 
material  can  be  studied.  The  child  gets  Bible  truths 
w^hich  he  can  understand,  and  the  same  is  true  of 
each  period  of  the  individual  life. 

PROMOTION 

The  graded  lessons  present  the  opportunity  for 
promotion,  and  put  the  process  of  promotion  on  a 
systematic  basis.  There  is  a  definite  end  for  each 
course  of  lessons.  When  the  pupils  have  shown 
sufficient  knowledge  of  the  lesson  taught  and  have 
done  the  memory  work  prescribed,  then  they  will  be 
ready  to  be  promoted  to  the  next  grade. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

SUMMARY  OF  THE  GRADED  COURSES 

Introduction:  Purpose  of  Graded  Lessons  —  The 
Beginners*  Graded  Series:  Aim  of  the  Course  —  The 
Primary  Graded  Series:  Aim  of  the  Course  —  The 
Junior  Graded  Series:  Aim  of  the  Course  —  The  In- 
termediate Graded  Series:  Aim  of  the  Course  —  The 
Senior  Series:  Aim  of  the  First  Year;  Outline  of 
Material,  First  Year;  Aims  for  the  Second  Year; 
Aim  for  Outline  of  Material,  Second  Year;  Aim  for 
the  Third  Year;  Outline  of  Material,  Third  Year  — 
Adult  Courses  —  The  Future. 

INTRODUCTION 

PUEPOSE    OF    GRADED    LESSONS 

To  meet  the  spiritual  needs  of  the  pupil  in  each 
stage  of  his  development. 

These  spiritual  needs,  broadly  stated,  are: 

(1)  To  know  God  as  he  has  revealed  himself  to 
us  in  nature  and  in  Christ. 

(2)  To  exercise  toward  God  the  Father,  and  His 
Son  Jesus  Christ,  our  Lord  and  Savior,  trust,  obedi- 
ence, and  worship. 

(3)  To  know  and  do  our  duty  to  others. 

270 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  271 

(4)  To  know  and  do  our  duty  to  ourselves. 

THE  BEGINNERS'  GRADED  SERIES 

(Complete  in  two  years;  approximate  age  of 
pupils,  four  and  five  years.) 

AIM    OF    THE    COURSE 

To  lead  the  little  child  to  the  Father  by  helping 
him. 

( 1 )  To  know  God,  the  heavenly  Father,  who  loves 
him,  provides  for,  and  protects  him. 

(5)  To  know  Jesus,  the  Son  of  God,  who  became 
a  little  child,  who  went  about  doing  good,  and  who 
is  the  friend  and  Savior  of  little  children. 

(3)  To  know  about  the  heavenly  home. 

(4)  To   distinguish  between   right  and  wrong. 

(5)  To  show  his  love  for  God  by  working  with 
Him  and  for  others. 

THE  PRIMARY  GRADED  SERIES 

(Complete  in  three  years;  approximate  age  of 
pupils,  six,  seven,  and  eight  years.) 

AIM    OF    THE    COUKSE 

To  lead  the  child  to  know  the  heavenly  Father,  and 
to  inspire  within  him  a  desire  to  live  as  God's  child. 

(1)  To  show  forth  God's  power,  love,  and  care, 
and  to  awaken  within  the  child  responsive  love,  trust, 
and  obedience. 

(2)  To  build  upon  the  teachings  of  the  first  year 


£72  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

(1)  by  showing  ways  in  which  children  may  express 
their  love,  trust,  and  obedience;  (2)  by  showing 
Jesus  the  Savior  in  His  love  and  work  for  men;  and 
(3)  by  showing  how  helpers  of  Jesus  and  others  learn 
to  do  God's  will. 

(3)  To  build  upon  the  work  of  the  first  and  sec- 
ond years  by  telling  (1)  about  people  who  chose 
to  do  God's  will;  (2)  Jesus,  by  His  life  and  words, 
death  and  resurrection,  revealed  the  Father's  love 
and  will  for  us ;  (3)  such  stories  as  will  make  a  strong 
appeal  to  the  child  and  arouse  within  him  a  desire 
to  choose  and  do  that  which  God  requires  of  him. 

THE  JUNIOR  GRADED  SERIES 

(Complete  in  four  years;  approximate  age  of 
pupils,  nine,  ten,  eleven  and  twelve  years.) 

AIM    OF    THE    COURSE 

(1)  To  awaken  an  interest  in  the  Bible,  and  love 
for  it;  to  deepen  the  impulse  to  choose  and  to  do 
right. 

(2)  To  present  the  ideal  of  moral  heroism;  to  re- 
veal the  power  and  majesty  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  to 
show  his  followers  going  forth  in  his  strength  to  do 
his  work. 

(3)  To  deepen  the  sense  of  responsibility  for  right 
choices ;  to  show  the  consequences  of  right  and  wrong 
choices ;  to  strengthen  love  of  the  right  and  hatred 
of  the  wrong. 

(4)  To  present  Jesus  as  our  example  and  Savior; 
to  lead  the  pupil  to  appreciate  his  opportunities  for 
service,  and  to  give  him  a  vision  of  what  it  means  to 
be  a  Christian. 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  273 


THE  INTERMEDIATE  GRADED  SERIES 

(Complete  in  four  years;  approximate  age  of 
pupils,  thirteen,  fourteen,  fifteen  and  sixteen  years.) 

AIM    OF    THE    COURSE 

To  lead  to  the  practical  recognition  of  the  duty 
and  responsibility  of  personal  Christian  living,  and 
to  organize  the  conflicting  impulses  of  life  so  as  to 
develop  habits  of  Christian  service. 

The  central  aim  of  these  biographical  studies  for 
the  first  and  second  years  is  religious  and  moral ;  but 
the  religious  and  moral  emphasis  in  these  studies  will 
not  lead  to  any  neglect  of  the  historical  viewpoint, 
as  these  characters  are  generally  makers  of  history 
and  cannot  be  satisfactorily  presented  without  the 
historical  setting  as  a  background. 

OUTLINE    OF    MATERIAL,    FIRST    YEAR 

(1)  Biographical  Studies  in  the  Old  Testament. 

(2)  The  Christian  Life  Exemplified. 

OUTLINE    OF    MATERIAL,    SECOND    YEAR 

( 1 )  Jesus  the  Leader  of  Men. 

(2)  Companions  of  Jesus. 

(3)  Early  Christian  Leaders. 

(4)  Christian  Characteristics,  Illustrated  in  Nota- 
ble Christian  Leaders. 

(5)  Character-building,  Illustrated  in  the  Life 
and  Work  of  Modern  Heroes  of  Faith. 

OUTLINE    OF    MATERIAL,    THIRD    YEAR 

(1)  Jesus  Entering  Upon  His  Life-work. 

(2)  Jesus  in  the  Midst  of  Popularity. 


£74  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

(3)   Jesus  Facing  Opposition  and  Death. 
(4«)   Teaching  of  Jesus. 

OUTLINE    OF    MATERIAL,    FOURTH    YEAR 

(1)  What  it  Means  to  be  a  Christian. 

(2)  Special  Problems  of  Christian  Living. 

(3)  The  Christian  and  the  Church. 

(4)  The  Word  of  God  in  Life. 

THE  SENIOR  SERIES 

(To  be  completed  in  four  years;  approximate  age 
of  pupils,  seventeen,  eighteen,  nineteen  and  twenty 
years.) 

AIM    OF    THE    FIRST    YEAR 

(1)  To  lead  the  pupil  to  see  life  in  proper  per- 
spective from  the  Christian  point  of  view,  and  to 
aid  him  in  finding  his  place  and  part  in  the  world's 
work. 

(2)  To  lead  the  pupil,  through  frank  confer- 
ences on  himself,  his  limitations,  and  his  relations  to 
the  kingdom  of  God,  to  a  realization  of  the  claims 
of  Christ  as  Savior  and  Lord,  and  of  his  service  as 
the  true  basis  of  successful  living. 

OUTLINE    OF    MATERIAL,    FIRST    YEAR 

(1)  The  World  as  a  Field  for  Christian  Service. 

(2)  The  Problems  of  Youth  in  Social  Life. 

(3)  The  Book  of  Ruth. 

(4)  The   Epistle   of   James. 

AIMS    FOR    THE    SECOND    YEAR 

(1)  To  awaken  in  young  men  and  women  a 
permanent   interest  in  the  development   of  religion 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  275 

as    reflected    in   the   history   and   literature    of   the 
Hebrew  people. 

(2)  To  relate  the  studies  of  this  year  to  the  per- 
sonal religious  life  of  the  individual  student 

(a)  by  re-enforcing  his  sense  of  the  presence  of 
God  in  human  history ; 

(b)  by  emphasizing  the  ethical  and  social  char- 
acter of  religion; 

(c)  by  inspiring  him  with  the  sense  of  his  per- 
sonal responsibility  to  know  and  to  share  God's 
purpose  for  the  world. 

OUTLINE    OF    MATERIAL,    SECOND    YEAR 

(1)  Growth  of  Religious  Ideas  during  the  Rise 
of  the  Hebrew  Nation. 

(2)  Growth  of  Religious  Ideas  under  the  Hebrew 
Monarchies. 

(3)  Growth  of  Religious  Ideas  in  and  after  the 
Babylonian  Exile. 

(4)  Studies  in  Hebrew  Religious  Literature. 

AIM    FOR    THE    THIRD    YEAR 

To  awaken  in  young  people  an  abiding  interest 
in  the  New  Testament,  an  appreciation  of  its  funda- 
mental importance  to  the  Christian  faith,  and  a  real- 
ization of  its  practical  value  to  them  as  a  guide  in 
Christian  conduct. 

A  rapid  survey  of  the  literature  and  history  of 
New  Testament  times  is  taken. 

OUTLINE  OF  MATERIAL,  THIRD  YEAR 

(1)  The  Historical  Background  of  Christianity. 

(2)  The  Early  History  of  Christianity. 


ne  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

(3)  Christianity  Established  among  the  Gentiles. 

(4)  The  Principles  and  Practice  of  the  Gospel. 

(5)  The  Interpretation  and  Defense  of  Christian- 
ity. 

(6)  The  Apostolic  Church  a  Brotherhood. 

ADULT  COURSES 

From  the  manual  recently  published  with  respect 
to  the  introduction  and  use  of  the  graded  lessons  we 
quote  the  following :  "  Up  to  the  present  time  the 
International  Graded  Series  does  not  include  courses 
for  adults.  Until  such  courses  are  ready  and  an- 
nounced, the  following  courses  are  available.  At- 
tention is  called  first  to  the  courses  prepared  for 
adults  as  issued  in  the  Adult  Class  Magazine  pub- 
lished by  the  several  denominations.  Among  the 
elective  courses  varying  from  thirteen  to  forty-two 
lessons  are  the  following,  which  can  be  obtained 
through  the  publishers  of  this  manual. 

"  '  The  Early  Days  of  Israel,'  by  Irving  F.  Wood 
and  Newton  M.  Hall,  seeks  to  discover  the  main 
thought  in  the  mind  of  the  biblical  writers  with  a 
view  to  emphasizing  the  religious  truths  and  apply- 
ing the  principles  thus  discovered  to  every  day  mod- 
ern life. 

"  *  The  Days  of  the  Kings  of  Israel,'  by  Irving  F. 
Wood  and  Newton  M.  Hall,  is  a  study  of  the  books 
recording  the  lives  of  the  kings  of  Israel,  and  a 
detailed  study  of  the  character  and  reign  of  the  in- 
dividual kings,  the  aim  being  to  give  a  vivid  picture 
of  the  times,  the  purpose  of  the  writers  of  the  books, 
and  the  relationship  existing  between  their  age  and 
ours. 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  277 

"  *  The  Liquor  Problem.'  This  is  a  course  of  thir- 
teen lessons  dealing  with  such  phases  of  the  liquor 
question  as  *  The  Magnitude  and  Seriousness  of  the 
Liquor  Business,'  '  Alcohol  and  Health,'  *  The  Saloon 
and  Politics,'  *  Alcohol  in  the  Light  of  Race  Welfare,' 
*  The  Effect  of  Liquor  Drinking  upon  Labor,'  etc. 
The  treatment  of  each  lesson  is  thoroughly  scientific 
—  the  plan  being  to  present  only  well  established 
facts.  Practical  suggestions  for  appropriate  ac- 
tivities in  harmony  with  the  truths  set  forth  in  each 
lesson  are  given. 

"'The  Introduction  to  the  Life  of  Christ,'  by 
William  Bancroft  Hill,  is  a  simple  yet  scholarly, 
comprehensive  treatment  of  the  entire  problem  con- 
nected with  the  Gospels  and  their  interpretation,  and 
so  presented  that  one  unfamiliar  with  recent  dis- 
cussion gains  a  clear  idea  of  the  questions  involved, 
and  of  the  attitude  of  leading  scholars  respecting 
their  twelve  lessons. 

"  '  The  Life  of  Jesus,'  by  George  B.  Stewart,  is 
a  study  of  the  words  and  works  of  Jesus  against  the 
background  of  the  Old  Testament  Messianic  hope, 
and  the  custom,  person,  life,  and  teachings  of  the 
times  of  Jesus  presented  comparatively  and  supplied 
with  questions  and  messages  for  to-day.  Fifty  les- 
sons. 

"  '  The  Making  of  a  Nation,'  by  Charles  Foster 
Kent  and  Jeremiah  Whipper  Jenks,  is  a  series  of 
twelve  studies  on  the  beginnings  of  Israel's  history, 
dealing  with  specific  events  in  their  relationship  to 
personal  religious  life  and  the  social  and  political 
problems  of  to-day. 

"  *  Studies  in  the  Life  of  Christ,'  '  The  Social  Sig- 


a78  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

nificance  of  the  Teachings  of  Jesus,'  and  similar 
courses  have  been  prepared  by  the  Young  Men's 
Christian  Association.  These  courses  deal  with  the 
history  of  Bible  characters  whose  teaching  work  is 
brought  into  the  foreground.  They  are  prepared 
with  from  twelve  to  thirty  lessons,  with  a  daily  read- 
ing and  practical  exposition  for  each  day. 

"  '  Constructive  Bible  Studies,'  prepared  by  the 
Chicago  University  Press,  provides  for  two  kinds  of 
classes  —  those  who  are  preparing  for  the  work  of 
teaching,  and  those  who  are  studying  for  their  own 
personal  profit."  ^ 

THE  FUTURE 

The  graded  lessons  are  here  to  stay.  They  will 
be  the  permanent  curriculum  of  the  Bible  School. 
The  present  international  graded  system  is  not  per- 
fect by  any  means ;  but  the  foundations  have  been 
laid,  and  the  Bible  School  has  taken  a  long  stride 
in  progressive  pedagogical  principles  by  adopting 
the  present  system.  The  systems  of  the  future  will 
be  improved  upon  as  experience  may  find  it  neces- 
sary. The  start  in  the  right  direction  has  been 
made. 

The  Bible  School  is  becoming  more  and  more  a  re- 
ligious educational  institution,  which  it  is  to  be  as 
related  to  the  church. 

1  General  Manual,  Graded  Lessons,  pages  128,  129,  130. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Scope  of  Religious  Education  —  History  of  Re- 
ligious Education  —  Studies  in  Psychology  —  Prep- 
aration and  Teaching  —  The  Bible  School. 

A  large  number  of  reference  books  believed  to  be 
essential  to  the  subject  of  religious  education,  are 
here  mentioned.  The  list  comprises  the  majority  of 
the  books  consulted  in  the  preparation  of  this  volume : 

SCOPE  OF  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

Lectures  on  Pedagogy,  by  Compayre. 

The  Meaning  of  Education,  by  Butler  —  Macmil- 
lan. 

Personal  and  Ideal  Elements  in  Education,  by 
King. 

Foundations  of  Education,  by  Seeley  —  Hinds  & 
Noble  Company. 

Principles  and  Ideals  for  the  Sunday  School,  by 
Burton  —  Chicago  University  Press. 

Educational  Aims  and  Values,  by  Hannus  —  Mac- 
millan. 

Educational  Aims  and  Methods,  by  Fitch  —  Mac- 
millan. 

My  Pedagogic  Creed,  by  Dewey  —  Kellogg  &  Com- 
pany. 

Religious  Education,  by  Smith  —  Young  Church- 
man Company. 

279 


280  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 


HISTORY  OF  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

Development  of  Religion  and  Thought  in  An- 
cient Egypt,  by  Breasted  —  Scribners. 

The  Religion  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria,  by  Rog- 
ers —  Eaton  &  Mains. 

Religious  Belief  in  Babylonia  and  Assyria,  by 
Jastrow  —  Putnam. 

School  System  of  the  Talmud,  by  Spiers  —  Elliot 
Stock,  London. 

Buddhism,  by  Rhys-Davids  —  Putnam. 

Hinduism,  by  Professor  Monier  Williams  —  Society 
for  Promoting  Christian  Knowledge,  London. 

The  Heart  of  India,  by  Barnett  —  John  Murry, 
London. 

Ancient  Monarchies,  Vol.  Ill,  by  Rawlinson  — 
Cassino  &;  Company. 

Schools  of  Hellas,  by  Freeman  —  Macmillan. 

Old  Greek  Education,  by  Mahaffy  —  Harpers. 

National  Education  in  Greece,  by  Wilkins  — 
Strahan  &  Company,  London. 

Roman  Education,  by  Wilkins  —  Cambridge  Uni- 
versity Press. 

A  History  of  Education,  by  Graves  —  Macmillan. 

Pre-Christian  Education,  by  Laurie  —  Longmans. 

Text-book  in  the  History  of  Education,  by  Mon- 
roe —  Macmillan. 

The  History  of  Pedagogy,  by  Compayre  —  Heath 
&  Company. 

Primitive  Christian  Education,  by  Geraldine 
Hodgson  —  T.  &  T.  Clark. 

Antiquities  of  Christian  Church,  by  Bingham  — 
Bohn,  London. 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  281 

Schools  of  Charles  the  Great,  by  Mullinger  — 
Longmans. 

History  of  Medieval  Education,  by  Williams. 

History  of  Education,  by  Painter  —  Appleton. 

Educational  Reformers,  by  Quick  —  Appleton. 

History  of  Sunday  Schools,  by  Pray. 

First  Fifty  Years  of  the  Sunday  School,  by  Wat- 
son. 

Robert  Raikes,  by  Gregory. 

The  Day,  the  Book,  and  the  Teacher,  by 
Hood. 

The  Sunday  School  in  the  Development  of  the 
American  Church,  by  Michael  —  The  Young 
Churchman  Company. 

The  Sunday  School,  by  Trumbull  —  Sunday 
School  Times  Company. 

STUDIES  IN  PSYCHOLOGY 

Psychology,  Vols.  I  and  II,  by  James  —  Holt  and 
Company. 

Outlines  of  Psychology,  by  Royce  —  Macmillan. 

New  Psychology,  by  Gordy  —  Hinds  and  Noble. 

Introduction  to  Child  Study,  by  Drummond  — 
Edward  Arnold,  London. 

Heredity,  by  Ribot  —  Appleton. 

Heredity  and  Christian  Problems,  by  Bradford  — 
Macmillan. 

Development  of  the  Child,  by  Oppenheim  —  Mac- 
millan. 

The  Child  and  Religion,  by  Stephens  —  Williams 
and  Norgate. 

The  Child;  A  Study  in  the  Evolution  of  Man, 
by  Chamberlain  —  Scribners. 


282  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF 

The    Teacher,    the    Child,    and    the    Book,   by 

Schauffler  —  Wilde  Co. 
The  Study  of  the  Child,  by  Taylor  —  Appleton. 
Psychology  of  Childhood,  by  Tracy  —  Heath  and 

Company. 
Education   in   Religion   and   Morals,   by    Coe  — 

Revell. 
Psychology  of  Religious  Belief,  by  Pratt  —  Mac- 

millan. 

STUDIES  IN  PSYCHOLOGY 

First  Three  Years  of  Childhood,  by  Perez  — 
Bordeen. 

The  Psychology  of  Religion,  by  Starbuck  — 
Scribners. 

Adolescence,  Vols.  I  and  II,  by  Hall  —  Appleton. 

Sunday  School  and  the  Teens,  by  Alexander  — 
Association  Press. 

Talks  to  Teachers,  by  James  —  Holt. 

Brain  and  Personality,  by  Thompson  —  Dodd, 
Mead. 

Elements  of  Psychology,  by  Thorndike  —  Seller. 

Elements  of  Child  Psychology,  by  Baldwin  Ap- 
pleton. 

Thinking,  Feeling,  and  Doing,  by  Scripture  — 
Putnam. 

Study  in  Child  Nature,  by  Harrison  —  Chicago 
Kindergarten  Co. 

The  Boy  Problem,  by  Forbush  —  Pilgrim  Press. 

Modern  Study  of  Conscience,  by  Huckel  —  Win- 
ston Press. 

Habit  in  Education,  by  Radestock  —  Heath. 

Religion  in  Boyhood,  by  Loyard  —  Button. 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  283 


PREPARATION  AND  TEACHING 

The  Art  of  Teaching,  by  White  —  American  Book 
Company. 

The  Making  of  a  Teacher,  by  Brumbaugh  —  Sun- 
day School  Times  Co. 

On  Teaching,  by  Calderwood  —  Macmillan. 

The  Seven  Laws  of  Teaching,  by  Gregory  —  The 
Pilgrim  Press. 

Primer  on  Teaching,  by  Adams  —  H.  T.  Clark. 

Training  of  the  Twig,  by  Drawbridge  —  Long- 
mans, Green  &  Co. 

Teaching,  by   Payne  —  American  Book  Company. 

The  Front  Line  of  the  Sunday  School  Move- 
ment,  by   Peloubet  —  Wilde   Company. 

Interest  and  Education,  by  DeGarmo  —  Macmil- 
lan. 

Teaching  and  Teacher,  by  Trumbull  —  Scribners. 

Point  of  Contact  in  Teaching,  by  Dubois  —  Dodd 
Mead  &  Company. 

Art  of  Questioning,  by  Fitch  —  Kellogg  &  Com- 
pany. 

Successful  Teaching,  by  Greenwood  —  Funk  & 
Wagnalls. 

Teacher  and  Child,  by  Mark  —  Revell. 

Yale  Lectures  on  Teaching,  by  Trumbull  —  Scrib- 
ners. 

The  Art  of  Teaching,  by  Fitch  —  Barnes. 

Pictures  and  Picture  Work,  by  Hervey  —  Revell. 

Art  of  Securing  Attention,  by  Fitch  —  Barnes. 

How  to  Hold  Attention,  by  Hughes  —  Barnes. 

How  to  Keep  Order,  by  Hughes  —  Barnes. 

Adult  Classes,  by  Wood  —  Pilgrim  Press. 


284  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

THE  BIBLE  SCHOOL 

Ways  of  Working,  by  Schauffler  —  Wilde  &  Com- 
pany. 

Sunday  School  in  Peinciple  and  Practice,  by 
Cope  —  ReveU. 

How  TO  Teach  a  Sunday  School  Lesson,  by  Cor- 
mack  —  ReveU. 

How  TO  Conduct  a  Sunday  School,  by  Lawrance 

—  Revell. 

Sunday  School  Movements  in  America,  by  Brown 

—  Revell. 

Introduction  and  Use  of  International  Graded 
Lessons  ;  General  Manual,  by  Winchester  — 
The  Pilgrim  Press. 

Sunday  School  Graded,  by  McKinney  —  Westmin- 
ster Press. 

Graded  Sunday  School  in  Principle  and  Prac- 
tice, by  Meyer  —  Westminster  Press. 

The  Pedagogical  Bible  School,  by  Haslett  — 
Revell. 

Modern  Methods  in  Sunday  School  Work,  by 
Mead  —  Dodd  Mead  &  Co. 

Modern  Sunday  School,  by  Vincent  —  Eaton  and 
Mains. 

Bible  School  Curriculum,  by  Pease  —  University 
of  Chicago  Press. 

Higher  Criticism  and  Monuments,  by  Sayce  —  So- 
ciety for  Promoting  Christian  Knowledge. 


INDEX 


INDEX 


Adaptation,   205. 
Adolescent,  The,  167-187. 
Agricola,  Rudolph,  68. 
Alcuin,  55. 
Anger,  177. 
Apperception,  130. 
Arrangement,  257. 
Art,  220;  Greek,  42. 
Ascham,  Roger,  83. 
Assemblies,  112. 
Attention,  121,  206,  262. 

Bacon,  Francis,  85. 

Basedow,  John,  96. 

Bible,  The,  77,  222 ;  Study, 
224. 

Bibliography,  279 ;  Scope 
of  Religious  Education, 
279;  History  of  Reli- 
gious Education,  280; 
studies,  in  Psychology 
281;  Preparation  and 
Teaching,  283;  Bible 
School,  284. 

Biography,  220. 

Body  and  Mind,   117. 

Brain,  The,   118. 


Calvin,  John,  80. 


Charlemagne,  Reforms  of, 
54. 

Childhood,  Early,  146; 
Later,    156. 

Christianity,  relation  of  to 
Roman  Education,  50; 
growth  of,  51. 

Christian,   187. 

Church,  14,  234. 

Comenius,  John  Amos,  89. 

Common  life.  Brethren  of, 
67. 

Conception,  125. 

Connecting  Links,  213. 

Conscience,  176. 

Conventions,  112. 

Conwell,  Russell  H.,  Intro- 
duction by. 

Curiosity,   162. 

Dependence,  152. 
Development,       Compara- 
tive, 133. 
Devotional,  233. 
Discussion,  Groups,  202. 

Education,  definition,  1-7; 
Assyrian,   22;    Babylon- 


287 


288 


INDEX 


ian,  23;  Buddhistic,  34; 
Chinese,  20 ;  condition 
of,  72;  Egyptian,  18; 
Ezra,  25;  female,  29; 
Hellenic,  41;  Hindus, 
30 ;  Medo-Persian,  36 ; 
medieval,  52 ;  religious, 
7-8,  155,  164,  185;  ref- 
ormation of,  71;  Ro- 
mans, 45 ;  Transient 
Period,  51. 

Erasmus,  69. 

Ernesti,  Johann,  97. 

Environment,  142. 

Examples,  214. 

Faults,  172. 
Fear,  153. 
Feeling,  123. 
Francke,  August,   92. 
Friendship,  171. 
Froebel,  Freidrich,   100. 

Geography,  221. 

Graded  Courses,  Summary, 
270;  purpose,  270;  Be- 
ginners, 271 ;  Primary, 
271;  Junior,  272;  In- 
termediate, 273;  Senior, 
274;  Adult,  276;  The 
Future,  278. 

Growth,  146,  158,  168- 
170. 

Habit,  129. 

Herbart,  Jean  Frederic, 
102. 


Heredity,     Physical,     137; 

intellectual,   138;  moral, 

141. 
History,  219. 
Home,  12. 
Humor,  161. 
Huss,  John,  64. 

Ideal,  The,  192. 
Ignorance,  224. 
Illustrations,   217. 
Imagination,  126,  149,  160, 

170. 
Individuality,    170. 
Institutes,    112. 
Instinct,  Collecting,  163. 
Intelligibility,  215. 
Interest,  261. 

Jews,   23. 
Judgment,  129. 

Knowing,  123. 

Language,  154. 

Learning,  Revival  of, 
65. 

Lessons,  Graded,  264,  267 ; 
adaptable,  268 ;  educa- 
tional, 268;  permanent, 
269;  Biblical,  269;  uni- 
form, 2'64 ;  criticism, 
264. 

Locke,  John,  91. 


INDEX 


289 


Luther,  Martin,  74. 
Luther  and  Education,  76. 
Luther's  Catechisms,  77. 

Melanchthon,  Philip,  79. 
Memory,  126,  140,  160. 
McMurry's,        Suggestion, 

209. 
Methods,    Historical,    228 ; 

literature,      229 ;      word 

studies,  232. 
Milton,  John,  87. 
Montaigne,  Michel  de,  84. 
Movements,      Pre-reforma- 

tion,  63. 
Music,  258;  Greek,  42. 

Nature,  219. 
Nerves,  The,  119. 

Object,  The,  193. 
Obedience,  260. 
Order,  253. 

Pastor,  234. 
Patience,  189. 
Perception,  124. 
Pestalozzi,     John     Henry, 

98. 
Plans,  Life,   178. 
Play  Traits,   147,   176. 
Poetry,  Greek,  43. 
Positive,   191. 
Prayer,   198. 
Preparation  and  Teaching, 

196. 


Psychology,  Principles  of, 
116;  definition,  116, 
117;  and  Religious  Edu- 
cation, 130. 

Punctuality,  253. 

Pupil,  The,  198. 

Questions      and      Illustra- 
tions, 211. 
Questions,  212. 

Rabelais,  82. 
Raikes  Movement,   104. 
Ratich,  Wolfgang,  87. 
Reading  and  Helps,  202. 
Reformation,         Religious 

and  Educational,  73. 
Religious   Life,   180. 
Renaissance,      Italy      and 

Germany,  66. 
Reuchlin,  John,  68. 
Rousseau,  Jean,  94. 
Review,  208. 
Rewards,  210. 

Savonarola,  Jerome,  65. 

Schools,  Benedictine,  52 ; 
the  Superintendent, 

237;  Vice-Superintend- 
ent, 240 ;  Department 
Superintendents,  240; 
Secretary,  241 ;  Treas- 
urer, 241 ;  Librarian, 
242;  departments,  243; 
Cradle  Roll,  244 ;  Begin- 
ners*   Class,    244;    Pri- 


290 


INDEX 


mary  Department,  244; 
Junior  Class,  245 ;  In- 
termediate, 245 ;  Senior, 
245;  Adult,  248;  Home, 
250;  Missionary,  250; 
Temperance,  251;  Cate- 
chetical, 47;  Cathedral, 
53;  Palace,  55;  Public, 
8,  9;  Sunday  Schools, 
American,  109;  Jesuit, 
80. 

Self,  150. 

Scholasticism,  Rise  of,  57. 

Sources,  218. 

Spencer,  Herbert,  103. 

Step  by  Step,  199. 

Student,  188. 

Study,    197. 

Suggestions  from  others, 
203. 

Sympathy,  178. 

System,  207. 


Teachers*  Meetings,  242 ; 
Training  Class,  251. 

Teaching,  Essential  Princi- 
ples, 205. 

Thought,  Stream  of,  120. 

Universities,  The  Early, 
61 ;  Privileges,  disci- 
pline and  studies,  62. 

Variety,  208. 
Ventilation,  256. 

Waldenses,  64. 
Wesel,  John,  67. 
Wyclif,  John,  64. 
Willing,  123. 

Youth,  169. 

Zwingli,  Ulrich,  80. 


Date  Due 

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